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of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

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Hornbill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

VOLUME 85 (1) : APRIL 1988

Date of Publication : 20-8-1988.

CONTENTS

Page

Analysis of predator-prey balance in Bandipur Tiger Reserve with reference

to census reports. By Ullas Karanth . . 1

A contribution to the B iology of the Houbara ( Chlamydotis undulata mac- queeni)', some observations on 1983-84 wintering population in Baluchi- stan. By Afsar Mian. ( With three text-figures ) . . 9

The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of southern India (Lepidgptera:

Rhopalocera) . By Torben B. Larsen 26

On THE FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR (RAJASTHAN).

By C. R. Ajith Kumar and V. S. Vijayan. (With a text- figure) . . 44

Ecology of babblers (Turdoides spp.). By V. J. Zacharias and D. N. Mathew.

(With three text-figures) . . 50

A contribution to the Flora of Khatling glacier in the Garhwal Himalaya

(District-Tehri), U.P. — 2. By K. S. Negi, J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur 64

Feeding ecology of the Mud Crab, Scylla serrata (Forskal) from Sunkeri backwaters, Karwar. By P. N. Prasad, R. Sudarshana and B. Neelakantan.

(With four text-figures) . . 79

Birds of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh — 2. By S. Dillon Ripley,

Bruce M. Beehler and K.S.R. Krishna Raju . . 90

Tendencies in north-south preferences in the orientation of Silkworm.

By M.V.V. Subrahmanyam and P. M. Chandrasekhar 108

Cladocera of Dharwad (Karnataka State). By C. S. Patil and B. Y. Gouder.

(With seven plates) . . 112

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History

Society — 33. By Humayun Abdulali 118

Observations on the reproduction and associated phenomena in the male Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. By Satwant Sandhu.

(With four text-figures) . . 135

New Descriptions:

Five new species of Tenthredo Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Tenth redin idae) from the Garhwal Hills. By Devinder Singh and Malkiat S. Saini. (With twenty- one text-figures) . . 143

A new species of Stictopisthus Thomson (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) from

India. By L. J. Kanhekar and P. K. Nikam. (With four text-figures) 151

A NEW GALL-MIDGE1 OF THE GENUS Lestodiplosis KlEFFER (DlPTERA : CeCIDOMYIIDAE)

from Maharashtra, India. By R. M. Sharma. (With seven text-figures) 155

A new genus of Chalcididae (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) from the collec- tions of United States National Museum of Natural History, Washing- ton, D.C. By T. C. Narendran. (With nine text-figures ) . . 158

A new species of Secamone (Asclepiadaceae) from south Andamans (India).

By A. K. Goel and M. K. Vasudeva Rao. (With a text-figure ) . . 161

Bothriochloa parameswaranii — A new species of Poaceae from Kerala, India.

By P. V. Sreekumar, C. P. Malathi and V. J. Nair. (With a text-figure ) . . 163

Description of a new species of the genus Aleurolobus Quaintance & Baker (1914) (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera). By B. V. David. R. W. Alexander Jesu- dasan and George Mathew. (With three text- figures) . . 165

A new species of the Gesneriaceae from Nagaland. By D. B. Deb and Ratna

Dutta. (With a text-figure ) . . 168

Three new species of the genus Acanthaspis (Amy. and Serv.) from southern India (Heteroptera-Reduviidae-Acanthaspidinae). By David Livingstone and C. Murugan. (With three text-figures ) . . 170

Obituary :

Rev. Br. Antonio Navarro, SJ. (With a plate ) . . 176

Reviews:

1 . The Orchid Flora of North West Himalayas. (M. R. Almeida) . . 178

2. Name changes in flowering plants of India and Adjacent regions. (M. R.

Almeida) . . 178

3. Tigers of the Raj — the Shikar Diaries of Colonel Burton 1894 to 1949.

(Pratap Saraiya) 180

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. The Stump-tailed Macaque (Macaca arctoides I. Geoffroy) in Arunachal Pradesh. By R. N. Bhargava (p. 182); 2. Shortnosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus sphinx Vahl) feeding on the leaves of Cassia fistula at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary. By P. Balasubramanian (p. 183); 3. Scavenging habit of fishing cat (Felis viverrina) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. By Md. Nayerul Haque (p. 183); 4. Melanism in the jungle cat, Felis chaus Guldenstaedt (Felidae: Carnivora). By S. Chakraborty, R. Chakraborty, V. C. Agrawal and Manoj Muni (p. 184); 5. Some observations on food habits of Jackal (Canis aureus) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, as shown by scat analysis. By K. Sankar (p. 185); 6. Interaction between Dholes (Cuon alpinus) and a Python (Python molurus) in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, India. By Ajay A. Desai, N. Sivaganesan and S. Ramesh Kumar (p. 186); 7. Albino Sloth Bear. By A.M.K. Bharos

(p. 187); 8. Notes on the food habits of Nilgiri Tahr. By Clifford G. Rice (p., 1881);

9. Sex ratio in Lepus nigricollis. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 189).

Birds: 10. Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea) swallowing a Jungle Babbler. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 190); 11. Recovery of a Norwegian ringed Osprey in Gujarat, India. By Taej Mundkur (p. 190); 12. Notes on feeding behaviour of Amaurornis phoenicurus at Point Calimere. By R. Sugathan and S. Alagar Rajan (p. 191); 13. A new nesting colony of River Terns & Pratincoles. By E. K. Bharucha, P. P. Gogte and T. P. Gole (p. 191); 14. Sight record of Starling Sturnus vulgaris in Andhra Pradesh. By Asad R. Rahmani

(p. 193); 15. On the singing posture of the Strongfooted Bush Warbler (Cettia fortipes).

By Nitin Jamdar (p. 194); 16. Sighting of the Whitecapped Bunting Emberiza steward (Blyth) in Hingolgadh, Gujarat. By Shivrajkumar Khachar and Taej Mundkur (p. 195); 17. Bird Casualties in road accidents. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 195).

Reptiles: 18. Defensive behaviour in the Indian Roofed Turtle Kachuga tecta (Gray). {With a text-figure). By Indraneil Das (p. 197); 19. An incidence of a Gecko {Hemi- dactylus sp.) feeding on a Skink. By R. Kannan and R. Krishnaraj (p. 198); 20. A note on the food habit of the Garden Lizard, Calotes versicolor. By A. G. Sekar (p. 199); 21. Note on snakes from the district Dangs, Gujarat State. By Raju Vyas (p. 200).

Amphibia: 22. Predation of Microhyla tadpoles by Gambusia. By H. V. Ghate and A. D. Padhye (p. 200); 23. On a small collection of Amphibians from Goa. {With a colour plate and a text-figure ). By Humayun Abdulali and A. G. Sekar (p. 202).

Fishes: 24. Mouth Brooding in the noble Gourami, Ctenops nobilis (McClelland) (Pisces: Belontidae) . By S. R. Sane and B. F. Chhapgar (p. 205); 25. On the systematic status of the species of the genus Danio Hamilton described by Barman (1983, 1984. 1985). By Raj Tilak and Seema Jain (p. 207); 26. First record of the King-fish, Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870 (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from India. By R. P. Barman (p. 210); 27. Occurrence of a Schizothoracine fish (Snow Trout) in a subterranean cave near Udaipur, Rajasthan. By Raza Tehsin, V. S. Durve and Manoj Kulshreshtha (p. 211).

Insects: 28. Mating and oviposition behaviour of tea Mosquito Bug Helopeltis antonii Signoret (Heteroptera : Miridae). By S. Devasahayam (p. 212); 29. Young lac insects in a miniature ant’s nest. By S. Mahdihassan (p. 215); 30. Record of Sima alaboranus (Walker), a honeydew scavenger ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Myrmecinae) killing aphidophagous syrphid Maggot in Western Himalaya. By D. Ghosh and S. Chakrabarti (p. 216); 31. Dung and Dung Beetles in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central Indian Highlands. By Paul N. Newton and Malcolm J. Coe (p. 218); 32. The Indian fritillary {Argyreus hyperbius L.) in the Chambal area of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan (Lepidoptera : Nym- phalidae). By Torben B. Larsen (p. 221); 33. Revised nomenclature for some butterflies of the Indian region. By R. K. Varshney (p. 222).

Other Invertebrates: 34. Some observations on the mother-young relationship in Meso- buthus famulus famulus (Fabr.) (Order: Seorpionida, Family: Buthidae). {With two text- figures). By B. E. Yadav and R. H. Kamble (p. 226); 35. On an interesting case of parental care and distribution of Cormocephafus dentipes Pocock (Chilopoda: Scolopendro- morpha: Scolopendridae) . By Raj Tilak and Pranjalendu Roy (p. 228); 36. Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. II. New records 1. Moinodaphnia macleayii (King, 1853) and 2. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard. 1895. {With two text-figures). By K. Venkataraman (p. 229).

Botany: 37. Two corrections to the nomenclature in the revision of Pueraria DC. By L. J. S. van der Maesen and S. M. Almeida (p. 233); 38. Lichen family Collemataceae from Andaman Islands, India. By D. K. Upreti and Ajay Singh (p. 234); 39. Asplenium bullatum Wall, ex Mett. (Aspleniaceae) — A new record for north-western Himalaya from Kumaun Hills. By Y. P. S. Pangtey and S. S. Samant (p. 237); 40. Pollen Morphological variations among three Taxa of Rutaceae. By B. Prema Gunaseeli (p. 238); 41. Merremia quinque- folia (Linn.) Hall. f. : A new record for eastern India. By B. C. Patra and B. P. Chaudhury (p. 240); 42. Relationship between Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, Danaine Butterflies and Ageratum conyzoides. By M. R. Almeida and V. K. Ravindran (p. 241); 43. Notes on the distri- bution of rare and little known Tanacetum nubigenum Wall, ex DC. (Asteraceae) from north- west Himalaya. {With a text-figure) . By K. S. Negi, K. C. Pant and K. C. Muneem (p. 242); 44. On the occurrence of Holcolemma canaliculatum (Nees ex Steud.) Stapf et Hubbard, a rare grass to south India, at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. By P. Balasubramanian and V. Karunanidhi (p. 244); 45. Tricholoma pratense (Agaricales) : A new Indian record. {With a text-figure). By M. K. Das and M. P. Sinha (p. 2j46); 46. Geranium carolinianum Linn. — An addition to the Indian Flora from Patiala District, Punjab. {With a text-figure). By M. Sharma, V. K. Singhal and Pairamjit Kaur (p. 247).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1988 APRIL Vol. 85 No. 1

ANALYSIS OF PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN BANDIPUR TIGER RESERVE WITH REFERENCE TO CENSUS REPORTS1

K. Ullas Karanth2

The deciduous forest habitats of the 690 km2 Bandipur tiger reserve in Karnataka State harbour major mammalian predators such as tiger, leopard and dhole supported by a large and diverse assemblage of prey species. It is reported that populations of these animals have increased dramatically in recent years, in response to improved management practices. These conclusions are drawn on the basis of population esti- mates of different species obtained using several census techniques currently in practice. In this paper I have examined the broad predator-prey balance among larger mammals of the reserve using the 1982 census figures, integrating ecological data on these species from several recent studies into the analysis.

This analysis suggests that the predator and prey population estimates are not meaningful. Comparisons of distributional density and biomass of different species and the total prey biomass calculated here with those obtained from other important studies in the Indian sub-continent reinforce these conclusions. Therefore, a radical revision of all the present census techniques and introduction of appropriate modem census methods are recommended.

Introduction

The deciduous forests of the 690 km2 Bandi- pur tiger reserve described by Neginhal (1974) harbour a diverse assemblage of large mam- mals (Table 1). Due to strict control over biotic interferences and systematic management

1 Accepted November 1985.

2 Centre for Wildlife Studies, 499, Kuvempu Nagar,

Mysore-570 023.

under ‘Project Tiger’ since 1973, it is reported that populations of large mammals have in- creased substantially. This claim is supported by the annual census reports. Particularly notable is the reported increase of tiger popu- lation from 11 in 1973 to 54 in 1984 (Basappa- navar 1985).

The census of tigers/leopards is made from pugmarks; elephant and gaur from Visual counts’ and other animals from ‘sample counts’

1

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

(Basappanavar 1985). During the October 1982 census, which I observed, the entire re- serve was divided into 103 compartments (average 6.9 km2) and between 0600-1600 hrs three member teams perambulated each com- partment thoroughly, following no predetermin- ed path. They collected ‘plaster casts’ of pug- marks and recorded animal sightings on a printed form. This field data was later conso- lidated to arrive at the census estimates (Table 2).

In this paper I have tried to analyse the predator-prey balance for the reserve based on these estimates. I have focussed my analysis on the larger carnivores, as they are sensitive indicators of habitat quality and may be studied at greater profit to gauge the health and ex- tent of an environment to be preserved (Eisen- berg 1980).

To simplify the analysis I have made the following assumptions:

(i) The large predators are cropping only the incremental prey biomass annually, with- out depleting the prey base.

(ii) Chital, sambar, muntjac, wild pig, gray langur and livestock form the major prey and accounted for 75% of the intake of tiger, leopard and dhole.

Relative numbers of predators and prey

Prey requirements of predators

Studies by Schaller (1967), Sunquist (1981) and Tamang (1982) indicate that tigers on an average need about 3000 kg of prey every year. On this basis the 49 tigers estimated in the 1982-83 census have an annual prey require- ment of 1,47,000 kg. Similarly, the annual prey requirement of the leopard appears to be about 1,000 kg (Schaller 1967, Muckenhirn and Eisenberg 1973). The requirement of 50 leopards reported would be 50,000 kg per year. Johnsingh (1983) estimated the annual

prey requirement of an adult dhole at 680 kg. Being coursing predators, presumably they have a higher energy expenditure per unit body weight in comparison to the two felines which are stalking predators. Considering sub- adults and pups in the population which have lower requirements, it is reasonable to presume an average annual requirement of 340 kg of prey per dhole. On this basis, the estimated population of 152 dhole needs 51,680 kg of prey per year. Therefore the total annual prey intake of all the tigers, leopards and dholes estimated to exist in Bandipur reserve during 1982-83 works out to 2,48,680 kg.

During 1982-83, 131 cattle were reported to be killed by large predators in and around the reserve (Basappanavar 1985). Including un- reported cases the maximum number of cattle killed can be assumed to be 200, since the villagers usually report any kill to claim com- pensation. At an average unit weight of 150 kg, these cattle met the prey requirement to the extent of 30,000 kg. Other minor wild prey species (Gaur, four-horned antelope, black- naped hare, bonnet monkey, peafowl etc.) consist of 25% of the total prey intake (as per assumption No. ii) and account for an additional 62,170 kg.

Therefore, the total weight of major wild prey species (chital, sambar, muntjac, wild pig and gray langur) consumed by large predators during the year was 1,56,510 kg (say 1,56,000 kg) based on census estimates of predators.

Availability of major wild prey species

In table 2, I have worked out the crude density and crude biomass of the major wild prey species using census data. From this it is seen that during 1982-83 Bandipur reserve had a standing biomass of 1,29,770 kg (say 1,30,000 kg) of major wild prey. What pro- portion of this biomass was cropped by predators?

2

PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN BAND1PUR TIGER RESERVE

Table 1

Large mammals recorded in bandipur tiger reserve*

Scientific Name	Common Name
PRIMATA Macaca radiata Presbytis entellus Loris tardigradus	Bonnet macaque Gray langur Slender loris
LAGOMORPHA Lepus nigricollis	Blacknaped hare
RODENTIA Hystrix indica Ratufa indica Petaurista petaurista	Indian porcupine Indian giant squirrel Large brown flying squirrel
CARNIVORA Panther a tigris Panther a par d us Felis chaus Felis bengalensis Viverricula indica Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Lutra lutra Melursus ursinus Herpestes edwardsi Herpestes smithi Herpestes vitticollis Canis aureus Cuon alpinus Hyaena hyaena	Tiger Leopard Jungle cat Leopard cat Small Indian civet Common palm civet Common otter Sloth bear Common mongoose Ruddy mongoose Stripenecked mongoose Jackal Dhole Striped hyena
PROB OSCIDEA Elephas maximus	Indian elephant
ARTIODCTYLA Bos gaurus Tetracerus quadricornis Sus scrofa Muntiacus muntjak Cervus axis Cervus unicolor Tragulus meminna	Gaur Four homed antelope Wild pig Muntjac Chital Sambar Chevrotain
PHOLIDOTA Man is crassicaudata	Indian pangolin
* From Neginhal (1974) and personal observations.

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 2

Densities and biomass of selected large mammals in bandipur tiger reserve derived from the

1982-83 census estimates

Species	Census Estimates	Density Nos. /km2	Unit wt.* kg	Average Biomass Kg/km2	To tal Stand- ing Biomass Kg
Wild Prey
Gaur	551	0.79	545.0	435.21	300 295
Sambar	342	0.50	113.6	56.30	38 851
Chital	1333	1.93	45.0	86.93	59.985
Muntjac	92	0.13	13.4	1.78	1 233
Wild pig	111	1.12	25.8	28.86	19 917
Gray langur	1223	1.77	8.0	14.18	9 784
			Total :	623.26	430 065
Predators
Tiger	49	0.0710	150.0	10.65	7 350
Leopard	50	0.0725	45.0	3.26	2 250
Dhole	152	0.2203	18.0	3.97	2 736
			Total :	17.88	12 336

♦The average unit weight for the species is selected from: Schaller (1967) for Gaur, chital and wild pig; Seidensticker (1976) for sambar; Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972) for muntjac; Johnsingh (1983) for gray langur and dhole; and Eisenberg (1980) for tiger and leopard.

Schaller (1972) and Sunquist (1981) estimat- ed that annually predators remove about 10% of the standing biomass. Johnsingh (1983) esti- mated it at 20% in his study area of 20 km2 around Bandipur campus. However, he attri- buted this higher rate of removal to the addi- tional predation caused by the sudden with- drawal of livestock from the area just prior to his study.

Thus a maximum annual cropping by pre- dators of the order of 15% seems reasonable for this analysis. Therefore, the possible annual removal of biomass of major wild prey species by the large predators works out to 19,500 kg. However as seen earlier annual consumption of such prey amounts to 1,56,000 kg, based on census estimates of predators. The annual cropping by predators seems to exceed the staiding biomass of major prey species !

These calculations indicate that the official census estimates of large predators are signi- ficant overestimates and those of major prey species are possibly underestimates.

Biomass of prey

Eisenberg and Seidensticker (1976) have synthesized the information on ungulate bio- mass and densities from several studies in South Asia. Johnsingh (1983) has assessed these for his 20 km2 study area in Bandipur reserve, which is the best wildlife area in the entire reserve. Based on published data and census estimates T have presented the densities and biomass for the major prey species (Table 2).

The biomass figures calculated above can be compared to those from other studies cited above. Biomass figures of 383 kg/ km2 for Gir

4

PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN BAN DIPUR TIGER RESERVE

forest, 1708 kg/ km2 for Kanha reserve and 3,382 kg/km2 for Johnsingh’s 20 km2 study area in Bandipur are available. In spite of lower incidence of livestock grazing pressure the calculated biomass of major prey species works out to only 623 kg/km2 in comparison. From the above comparison, the estimated prey biomass and hence the census estimates on which they are based appear to be too low for Bandipur tiger reserve.

Densities and Biomass of Predators

Johnsingh (1983) who pioneered the study of dhole in Bandipur estimated that the mean number of dhole varied between 7-18 in his study area. This yields a density of 35 to 90 dhole/ 100 km2. However, it must be noted that his study area had a high density of prey and ecologically almost ideal habitat condi- tions for dholes. The reserve as a whole is more densely forested and has a lower prey density. Therefore, the density of 22 dhole/ 109 km2 obtained from census estimate appears rather high.

While high densities of 17-20 leopards/ 100 km2 are reported from habitats in Sri Lanka (Eisenberg 1980, Santiapillai et ah 1982) where competing predators like tiger and dhole are entirely absent, the reported density of 7.25 leopards/ 100 km2 in Bandipur needs to be cautiously viewed, in the absence of any cor- roborative evidence.

Studies of the tiger in Kanha by Schaller (1967), Panwar (1979a) show densities 3.1- 4.7 animals/100 km2. Intensive radio-tracking studies (Sunquist 1981, Tamang 1982, Sunquist and Mishra, in press) in Chitwan have yielded density estimates of 2. 3 -3. 7 tigers/ 100 km2. These study sites were notable for the virtual absence of dholes and carried substantially higher prey biomass in comparison with the post- 1973 Bandipur reserve. Inspite of this, the census estimates yield an extraordinarily high

density of 7.10 tigers/ 100 km2 indicating a significant overestimate for this species.

The predator to prey biomass ratios calcu- lated using census estimates works out to 1 : 35 for Bandipur reserve as against 1 : 250 for Serengeti, 1:100 for Ngorongoro, 1:123 for Chitwan, 1:75 for Wilpattu and 1:124 for Johnsingh’s study area (Ratios calculated from Schaller 1972, Eisenberg 1980, Eisenberg and Seidensticker 1976 and Johnsingh 1983).

On the basis of the above analysis it can be concluded that:

(i) The census estimates for large predators in general and tigers in particular are significant overestimates.

(ii) The census estimates of prey species are not meaningful and might be under- estimates.

(iii) Therefore, the census techniques currently used in Bandipur tiger reserve are basi- cally wrong and need to be modified keep- ing in view recent trends and develop- ments in wildlife management.

Census Methods

A Review of present Census Techniques The census estimates of tigers/leopards are now obtained at Bandipur using the pugmark tracing technique developed by Choudhury and described by Panwar (1979b). Apart from not having been validated on a known population anywhere, the technique demands a great deal of personal skill on the part of the prac- titioner. In addition to this subjective bias the following errors might have led to the over- estimates in Bandipur:

(i) Absence of continuous year-round re- cording of pugmarks and assigning home- ranges to individual resident animals as done by Panwar (1979a) and McDougal (1977). The once a year census of Bandipur does not

5

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

enable identification of individual animals with their home ranges.

(ii) Classification of the pugmarks of a single animal as those of several animals due to the differences caused by substrate condi- tions.

(iii) Collection of pugmarks of different limbs and collection of pugmarks from distant localities made over a 2-3 day period.

The estimates for elephant and gaur are reported to be from ‘visual counts’ and of other species from ‘Sample counts’ (Rasappa- navar 1985). Both these estimates are likely to be wrong due to the following reasons:

(i) Due to the limited visibility the census teams fail to actually obtain a total count of gaur and elephants. However, since these ani- mals range over considerable distances, often in response to the census activity itself, some of them are likely to be counted by two or more adjoining census parties. Therefore, these cannot be considered total counts.

(ii) Since the census teams do not follow a repeatable pre-determined transect and do not also maintain any record of the width/ length of the forest strip being sampled, the counts of other species also cannot be accepted as sample counts.

In practice, however, the reserve managers seem to treat these arbitrary counts of all species as total counts (Basappanavar 1979, Wesley 1977) leading to estimates which are not meaningful.

Alternative Methods and Techniques

Before suggesting alternatives, the following points summarised from Caughley (1977) need consideration. The abundance of an animal species can be measured in three ways:

(i) Number of animals in a population {census or total count).

(ii) Number of animals per unit area {abso- lute density).

(iii) Density of one population relative to another — e.g., between different years or different locations {relative density).

Most ecological and management problems can be tackled with the help of suitable in- dices of relative density and many others with the help of absolute density estimates. Total counts have very few practical uses. I have outlined here, briefly, some alternate methods for estimating abundance of mammalian species at Bandipur keeping these points in view. Wherever possible, I have referred to some sources on the theory and practice of these alternate techniques:

(i) Relative density of tigers/leopards bet- ween localities or years can be estimated using suitably designed indices like number of tracks/ scats/sightings per km of roads traversed (Joslin 1973).

(ii) Absolute density of tigers/leopards can be estimated using home-ranges determined through systematic, year-round pugmark col- lections (McDougal 1977, Panwar 1979b). Identification of specific individuals from facial markings/coat patterns from photos obtained with camera trap devices can validate these estimates (McDougal 1977).

(iii) For all the reasonably abundant large mammalian species good indices of relative density in stratified habitats can be derived from roadside counts from vehicles, counts at water holes/feeding spots (Caughley 1977, Overton 1971, Berwick 1974, Dinerstein 1980).

(iv) For smaller, shy or nocturnal species e.g., rodents, mongooses, civets, smaller felids indices of relative densities can be obtained using capture-mark-recapture techniques (Over- ton 1971, Begon 1979 and Anon. 1981).

(v) Indices of relative densities for a wide range of species, particularly ungulates, can be obtained from pellet group/scat counts from linear strips or quadrats (Overton 1971, Mishra 1982).

6

PREDATOR-PREY BALANCE IN BAND I PUR TIGER RESERVE

(vi) For a large number of reasonably abundant diurnal mammals absolute densities can be estimated in stratified habitats using line transect censuses, particularly from ele- phant back. It has been successfully used in Nepal and has developed rapidly in recent years incorporating computer analysis of the field data (Caughley 1977, Burnham et al 1980, Anon. 1981, Seidensticker 1976, Mishra 1982 and Tamang 1982).

(vii) Absolute densities for many diurnal species can also be estimated from sweep/ drive censuses of smaller patches of forests (Overton 1971) since manpower is not a constraint at Bandipur.

(viii) For thinly distributed diurnal species e.g., dhole, bonnet macaque, four-horned ante- lope, systematic observations of previously marked animals may yield home-range size and hence absolute density estimates. For noc- turnal, thinly distributed, or hard to observe species e.g., civets and lesser felids home-ranges and absolute density estimates can be obtain- ed by repeated recapture of marked individuals in a series of traps (Overton 1971, Begon 1979 and Anon. 1981).

In conclusion, I must stress here that my analysis does not deny the spectacular success of ‘Project Tiger’ in Bandipur. It has the limited aim of evaluating the present census techniques so that more scientifically valid methods are evolved. Such methods will be more appropriate for quantifying the undis- puted success achieved by wildlife managers during the last decade in Bandipur and else- where in the country.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Mr. C. H. Basappanavar, Field Director, Bandipur Tiger Reserve for the generous cooperation extended during my visits to the Reserve for collecting the information used here. I am also grateful to Dr. R. Rudran of the Smithsonian Institution who introduced me to the practicalities of many census tech- niques. I have also benefited from discussions on an earlier draft of this paper with Drs. J. B. Sale, M. E. Sunquist, H. R. Mishra, A.J.T. Johnsingh and Mr. K. M. Chinnappa. I am indebted to all of them.

References

Anon. (1981): Techniques for the study of pri- mate population ecology. National Academy Press, Washington D.C.

Basappanavar, C. H. (1979) : Population dyna- nics in Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Predator-Prey rela- tionship). Myf orest’, 9-16.

— — (1985): Bandipur National

Park — A Paradise regained in tiger country. Tiger Paper, Vol. xii, No. 1, 28-32.

Begon, M. (1979) : Investigating animal abun- dance: capture-recapture for biologists. Edward

Arnold Ltd., London.

Berwick, S. H. (1974): The community of wild ruminants in the Gir forest ecosystem, India. Ph.D., Dissertation, Yale University, U.S.A.

Burnham, K. P., Anderson, D. R. & Laake, J. L.

(1980): Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations. Wildlife Mono- graph No. 72, The Wildlife Society, Washington D.C.

Caughley, G. (1977) : Analysis of vertebrate populations. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Dinerstein, E. (1980) : An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, Part III: Ungulate populations. Biol. Conserv. 18: 5-38.

Eisenberg, J. F. (1980) : The density and bio- mass of tropical mammals. In: Soule, M. E. and Wilcox, B. A. (Eds.), Conservation Biology, 35-55, Sinaur Sunderland, Mass.

Eisenberg, J. F. & Lockhart, M. C. (1972) : An ecological reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 101: 1-118.

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Eisenberg, J. F. & Seidensticker, J. (1976) : Ungulates in Southern Asia: A consideration of biomass estimates for selected habitats. Biol. Con- serv. 10: 294-308.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983) : Large mammalian

prey-predators in Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 1-57.

Joslin, P. (1973): Asiatic Lion: A study of eco- logy and behaviour. Ph.D., thesis, University of Edinburgh, U.K.

McDougal, C. (1977): The face of the tiger. Rivington Books, London.

Mishra, H. R. (1982) : The ecology and beha- viour of chital ( Axis axis ) in the Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Ph.D., thesis, University of Edinburgh, U.K.

Muckenhirn, N. A. & Eisenberg, J. F. (1973): Home ranges and predation of the Ceylon leopard. In: R. L. Eaton (Ed.), The World’s Cats, 1: 142- 175. World Wildlife Safari, Winston, Or.

Neginhal, S. G. (1974): Bandipur Tiger Re- serve: A Management Plan. Karnataka Forest De- partment, Bangalore.

Overton, W. S. (1971): Estimating the numbers of animals in wildlife populations. In: R. H. Giles (Ed.), Wildlife Management Techniques, 405-455, The Wildlife Society, Washington D.C.

Panwar, H. S. (1979a): Population dynamics and land tenures of tigers in Kanha National Park. Indian Forester (Special Issue) : 18-36.

Panwar, H. S. (1979b) : A note on tiger census technique based on pugmark tracings. Indian Forester (Special Issue) : 70-77.

Santiapillai, C., Chambers, M. R. & Ishwaran, N. (1982) : The leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer, 1974) in Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka and observations relevant to its conservation. Biol. Conserv. 23: 5-14.

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The deer and the tiger. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

(1972): The Serengeti Lion.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Seidensticker, J. (1976): Ungulate populations in Chitwan Valley, Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 10: 183-210.

Sunquist, M. E. (1981) : The social organization of tigers ( Panthera tigris ) in Royal Chitwan National Park. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 336s 1-98.

& Mishra, H. R. (in press) :

Habitat utilization and movement patterns of tigers and their prey: Implications for management and reserve design. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Tamang, K. M. (1982) : The status of the tiger ( Panthera tigris tigris) and its impact on principal prey populations in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Ph.D., thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.

Wesley, D. G. (1977): Census of wild animals in Bandipur Tiger Reserve. Myforest. 16: 15-19.

8

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA ( CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI ); SOME OBSERVATIONS ON 1983-84 WINTERING POPULATION IN BALUCHISTAN1

Afsar Mian2

(With three text-figures)

A carefully prepared questionnaire was circulated to persons in different parts of Baluchistan, and the data received from 42 persons were analysed with respect to distribution and population levels, population decline, food and feeding behaviour, roosting, responses to disturbance, trapping and domestication, and migration of the population of the Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ) wintering in Baluchistan.

Introducton

The desolate valleys of Baluchistan (Pakis- tan) have been recognized as a main wintering resort for the Asian race of Houbara Bustard, Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni (Ali and Ripley 1969, Siddiqi 1972). A gradual but rapid decline in all global populations of this bird (Collar 1980) and especially in Punjab (Mirza 1972, Goriup 1980), Sind (Surahio 1981, 1982, 1983), and N.W.F.P. (Roberts and Savage 1972, Malik 1983, Khan 1983), attract- ed us to this species in Baluchistan. Our researches during the past two years (Mian and Surahio 1983, Mian and Rafique 1984, Mian 1984a, Mian and Dasti 1984) suggested that this region is important in the world con- servation map of this species, as it still holds a reasonable population and potential for the presence of a limited breeding activity (Mian 1983, 1985a). As research progressed our in- terest in the biology of this bustard mounted, with the hope that it would provide a sound base for a well planned conservation strategy.

1 Accepted October 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Baluchi- stan, Quetta, Pakistan.

This report considers a part of data collected on biological and ecological aspects of the population of Houbara wintering in Baluchistan during 1983-84.

Material and Methods

A carefully prepared questionnaire with questions on various aspects of the biology, ecology and declining trends of the Houbara was circulated through the Provincial Forest Department to be filled up by the Forest Guards/Game Watchers based on the obser- vations on the populations of the bird winter- ing in their respective areas during the 1983-84 winters (facsimile of questionnaire. Appendix I). The questionnaire was also circulated among well known hunters and the local populace. A carefully drafted questionnaire helps in collection of a large body of infor- mation, especially when a total survey is not feasible over such an extensive terrain as in Baluchistan with limited financial resources. In all 42 individuals responded, from Zhob, Pishin, Quetta, Chagai, Kharan, Bisemah, Panjgur, Gwadar, Kohlu, Dera Bugti, Sibi and Kachhi. No information, however, was receiv- ed from Loralai and Lasbella districts.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

The reply to each question was tabulated. Some of the observations were irrelevant and were eliminated from the final analysis after giving due weight to the status of the reporter. Various countercheck questions for the obser- vations helped in selecting the right ones for the final analysis. Information regarding local and visiting hunters, generally seemed to be inadequate, because of the local ban on hunt- ing and official quota alloted to foreign hun- ters, and hence was not subjected to the ana- lysis of hunting pressure. The data regarding the take of the local and foreign hunters was collected through direct contact with the guides to the visiting falconers in the area, and local hunters.

Results and Discussion

Distribution and Population Levels :

The Houbara Bustard has a very wide dis- tribution in Baluchistan during the winter months and can be seen everywhere, except for the tops and slopes of the mountains and certain narrow valleys (Table 1, Fig. 1). As the northern part of the province is mainly occupied by Suleiman and Toba Kakar ranges, the favourable bustard tracts are very limited in Zhob (Patao), Pishin (Dolangi and Mar- gakti) and Quetta (Karram) districts. Vast desert steppe valleys occupy most of the southern part, hence the bird exhibits a wider distribution in Chagai, Kharan, Sibi, Kohlu, Kacchi and Makran districts. The presence of various mountain ranges limit bustard popu- lation to specific areas in Khuzdar, Punjgur and Bisemah. These findings suggest a much wider spread of wintering population of the species than that anticipated by Roberts and Savage (1972; Makran and Lasbella) and Siddiqi (1972, Maslak, Quetta), and partly confirm the distribution proposed by Mian (1984a), as seen from the hunting successes of the Arab falconers.

The data suggests that though a basal population level of the bird persists in all favourable bustard tracts of Baluchistan, throughout winter (October-March), the peak level is restricted to specific periods, depend- ing upon geographic location and physico- biological factors. Generally in northeastern parts (Zhob, Quetta, Pishin and Nushki) the peak levels are restricted to migratory fluxes, the population of the bird being very low during the rest of the wintering period. Thus, high population is present in Quetta during March-April, and in Zhob, Inam Bostan (Nushki) and Pishin during November-Decem- ber and February-March. Reasonably high population levels persist throughout wintering period in central and western Chagai, Kharan, Punjgur, Sibi and Kachhi areas, though limited to mid winters (January-March) in southern areas of Gwadar. Such a population fluctuation is understandable, because the northern areas, though lying on the migratory routes (Mian and Surahio 1983), have few valleys with favourable bustard habitat, thus forcing the bird to the southern and eastern areas to pass the major part of the wintering season.

The wintering population of the Houbara exhibits considerable fluctuation in density and dispersion depending on physical condi- tions present in the specific area. Though the extensive favourable bustard tracts of western Chagai (between Baldandin and Koh-i-Sultan), are famous for bearing a rich population of Houbara throughout winter and as hunting ground for Arab falconers, the present meagre population can be attributed to persistent drought. The information conveyed suggests the presence of good bustard population till January, 1984, and the absence of newly sprouting herbs due to drought has probably forced them to migrate to the southern areas of Urmagai, Washuk and Kharan, which had received scattered rain. The pattern of popu-

10

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA ( CHL AM YD OTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

Table 1

Distribution of favourable Houbara Bustard tracts, population levels and dispersal status of

WINTERING AND SUMMERING POPULATIONS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF BALUCHISTAN, BASED ON OBSERVATION

OF 1983-84 WINTERING POPULATION

Major Areas	Fields with	Wintering	Population		Summering
	reasonable				population
	bustard	Population	Dispersal	Period of	level
	population		status	stay
Zhob	Patao*	Rich	Clumped	November &	Rare,
				March- April	Singles
Pishin	Dolangi	Low	Clumped	Sept, to	Not
	Margakti*	Moderate		April	seen
Quetta	Karram*	Low	—	March to	-do -
		Moderate		April
Chagai	Inam Bostan Dak	High	Clumped	Sept, to	Very
	Padag Pul Chotao Kambran Game Reserve Gat Game Sanctuary* Nokkundi Koh-i-Sultan Shikar Dal Mashkhel Essa Chah	Moderate		April	few
Kharao	Everywhere,	Very	Very	Sept, to	Few
	Urmagai* Jalwar* Jhalawan*	Rich	clumped	April
. . . Bisemah	Bisemah	Poor	Dispersed	Nov. to	Very few
	Mashkey Zaddi			March	till March
. . . Gwadar	Jiwani	Poor	Dispersed	Jan. to	Nil
	Plairi Chittani Chitti Ikharah Dam Pishal Dar Bella Kollunchi Sar-i-Dasht Ball Nagoor*			March
Kalat	Karrah	Poor	Dispersed	Sept, end to	Very rare
. . . Khuzdar Wamashky '			April
	Kawartak Mula Kurkh

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 1 (contd.)

Kohlu	Sui* Pat Feeder Tomba* Bohri Subvand Safeed Garsi Pazza Berakh	High Moderate	Much dispersed	Nov. to March
. . . Dera Bughti	Dasht Goveran*	Poor	Dispersed	Oct. to March	—
Sibi	Kark Kot Parouzi Much Lehri Pat Wamber	Low Moderate	Clumped	Oct. to Feb.	Seldom, probably injured birds
Kachhi	Saryani* Bagh Gandana All other areas with mustard or Eruch sp.	Low Moderate	Dispersed	Sept, to March

* indicate the tract with a relatively higher bustard population.

lation fluctuation stands confirmed through our observations in November, 1983, and from the activities of Arab falconers, who exploited Chagai area in December and Kharan for the rest of the winter. The reports of Kharan receiv- ing a higher bustard population than previous years can be attributed to persistent drought and lack of sufficient vegetation in adjacent areas of Chagai, and to some precipitation during early winter and better vegetative cover in Kharan.

The peak levels of bird population varies in different areas with topography and a num- ber of biological factors, such as vegetative cover, vegetation type and human disturbance. The peak wintering population can be regard- ed as very high in Kharan (average of 60 birds spotted during a day’s walk) ; high to moderate in Chagai and Kohlu (25); moderate to low in Pishin, Sibi and Kachhi (15); poor in Khuzdar and Gwadar (8); and very poor in Punjgur (2-4). Our findings can be corrobo- rated with hunting successes/activities of Arab

falconers, who claimed a high toll of houbaras in Kharan, whereas no party visited Khuzdar, Gwadar and Punjgur. The exact significance of the various factors contributing to the diffe- rential status of wintering populations in a specific area needs to be studied.

The dispersal of wintering population, as indicated by size of groups, varies in different tracts of suitable habitat. Thus our data indi- cates that the population of the bird is very clumped (15-20 birds per group) in Kharan; clumped (10-15) in Zhob, Pishin, Chagai and Sibi; dispersed (4-8) in Bisemah, Punjgur, Gwadar, Dera Bugti and Kachhi; and very dispersed (1-4) in Kohlu. It appears that population level and dispersal status of bustard are correlated, indicating that both are decid- ed by the environmental factors. Thus optimal vegetation cover and related factors may attract larger population to the area and provide adequate food/shelter so that the incoming groups are not forced to disperse.

12

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

N

A RAB i A N SEA

f.	Pa too
2.	Ddangi
3.	f^argakki
4.	Karra m
5-.	Q isomoh
6.	Punjigur
7.	G wader
8.	Khiadar
9.	Koh!u
10.	0®ra Bugfi
ii .	Sibi
12.	Kachhi

Fig. 1. Line sketch of Baluchistan showing the relative distribution of bustard popu- lation. The dots indicate bustard density and filled spaces the approximate location

of the mountains.

It appears that the Houbara is attracted to different plant species in different areas. Thus, in Sibi and Kachhi areas its population is con- centrated around cultivated fields of Brassica campestris (mustard), and Eruca sativum

(Jamba), whereas in areas adjacent to Dera Ghazi Khan it is attracted to Capparis deci- dua, partially confirming earlier reports of Surahio (1983) for Houbara, and All and Rahmani (1983) for the Great Indian Bus-

13

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

tard. Further studies on ecological correlation between population density/dispersal of Houbara and plant type/ cover may yield in- teresting results.

The available information shows that the population of this bustard summering in Balu- chistan is very less. Virtually no summering population of Houbara is present in the major part of the province. The very rarely seen birds in areas such as Khuzdar, Sibi, Kacchi and Bisemah are believed to be injured ones, in- capable of accompanying the spring emigrants. However, evidence is accumulating that occa- sionally a few birds do spend the summer in Chagai and Kharan, though these may also show some degree of local migration in accord- ance with the occurrence of suitable vegetation. These observations agree with similar earlier reports (Ali and Ripley 1969, Roberts and Savage 1972, Siddiqi 1972).

Population Decline :

The information collected through question- naires and interviews with hunters and tribal chiefs suggests that there has been an obvious decline in the population of this bustard during the last 10-12 years, and the trend is becoming more pronounced with the passage of time. Most of the observers associate this decline with the onset of Arab falconry in the area. These observations are shared by workers throughout the world (Collar 1979, 1980), in Pakistan (Goriup 1981, Surahio 1983, Malik 1983, Khan 1983), and in Baluchistan (Mian and Surahio 1983, Mian 1984a). However, though reports from Soviet Russia (Alekseev 1980, Ponomareva 1979), and from Punjab and Sind (Goriup 1981, Surahio 1982) indi- cate that the declining trend started some 20 years ago, it became apparent in Baluchistan only in the last 10 years or so. The fact that Arab falconers started exploiting the area quite late may account for this.

Three reports from Khuzdar indicated that the population of the Houbara is not decreas- ing, but is actually on the increase, though an equal number of reports from the same broad locality maintained that the bird was on the decline, suggesting that the increase reported might be a chance observation; but even if the reports are believed they may not con- clusively indicate an actual increase in the over- all population. The presence of an apparently higher population in these very limited tracts could be easily attributed to certain specific local factors, including less hunting pressure and/or other biological factors like favourable feeding conditions, which may attract the bird from the surrounding, less favourable areas to these isolated pockets. There have been a number of reports of such local population shift resulting in a higher population density in isolated pockets than in the surrounding areas.

The decline in the abundance of wintering Houbaras has been rapid in almost all the regions for which reports are available and the population of the bird is believed to be much less now than some 10-12 years ago. Rough estimates of the declining rates obtained from casual observers in different parts of the province indicate a declining rate between 5% and 25%, averaging around 10% per annum. Some equivalent decline has been suggested for Sind (Surahio 1982) and Iran (Scott 1975). This rate of decline is higher than what Goriup (1980) has estimated for Cholistan area. The decline rate of 10% per annum is calcu- lated to reduce the population to 39.65% in 10 years and to 32.11% in 12 years. The de- clining rate in its winter quarters seems to be closely matched by the breeding population in its homeland as the population in Kyzylkum (U.S.S.R.) has been reduced to 25% of the 1965 population level (Ponomareva 1979).

The decline in the population levels of the

14

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

Houbara has been generally ascribed to des- truction/increased human disturbance of/in its traditional breeding grounds, habitat loss, sheep/goat competition (Ponomareva 1979, Haddane 1983, Mirza 1983), but mainly to hunting pressure (Roberts 1983, Khan 1983). The extent of hunting pressure present in its summering as well as wintering grounds is hard to fully ascertain. There is definitely a consi- derable hunting pressure on the Houbara population in its summering grounds in U.S.S.R. as well as its wintering grounds in Pakistan and an enforcement of a total ban on local hunting is difficult to execute. However, the present data indicates a clear decrease in activities of local hunters, which may be partially attributed to legislative action and partly to general awareness of the local hunters and prominence given to the species, through efforts of the Forest Staff and our talks with local populace during our field trips in the past three years.

The major hunting pressure on the bustard is, however, attributable to organized falconry. The evidence for a direct correlation between falconry and population decline is hard to collect, but the fact that there is no noticeable decline in population levels of the birds wintering in Khuzdar, where no falconry party has visited, suggests that the decline in the hunted areas is due to the intensive hunt- ing. The only other areas which have not been exploited by falconers include Quetta and Pishin, but both these receive only migratory flocks. The population decline in these areas may be attributed to falconry in other parts of the province. Further, the greater decline reported from Kohlu, Dera Bugti, Sibi and Kachhi than from other regions of Baluchistan may be reasonably attributed to the longer period they have been exploited by falconry parties, whereas Chagai, Kharan, and Punjgur have only recently attracted their attention.

Hunting Pressure :

The extent of hunting pressure from local hunters is difficult to assess because of a ban imposed on hunting of the Houbara by local hunters. The information given to us by the local hunters and prominent people of the different areas suggests that the local hunters did not claim more than 400-500 birds during 1984-85 wintering season in Baluchistan. This seems understandable because the resources available to local hunters are meagre and only a few prominent tribal chiefs can afford car transport. Most of the hunters depend on motor cycles. Further, decreased population density of the bird and its protective colora- tion makes the hunting very difficult. The number of the Houbara killed by local hunters is on a gradual decrease, partly because of the legal ban on hunting by local hunters and partly because of the general decline in the number of the birds. One of the hunters ex- pressed this fact by saying that whereas pre- viously one could capture some 15-20 birds in a day in the Pishin area, now the occasion is celebrated if a hunter manages to capture even a single bird.

Correct information as to the exact bag size claimed by visiting Arab falconers is also very difficult to collect due to security and secrecy maintained in the hunting camps. The data of hunting successes of falconry parties in diffe- rent areas (Table 2) suggest that during the 1983-84 winter they claimed 3,961 birds from the area. This hunting toll seems minimum as it mostly pertains to the prominence of the party and does not include the bag of hunters of secondary importance in camp hierarchy, who take their quarry to individual camps. Further, some of the informers were very re- luctant to give information, fearing the loss of their source of income. When all these facts are considered, it. would not be unreasonable to suggest that approximately 5,000 birds were

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

Table 2

Hunting successes of the Arab Falconers in

DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE BALUCHISTAN, DURING 1982-84 WINTERING SEASON

Area	Number of Falconry parties	Number of birds captured*	Total days hunted*
Chagai	1	510	25
Kharan	5	2702	72
Sibi	2	432	—
Dera Bughti	1	62	—
Kohlu	1	25	—
Punjgur	1	85	—
Zhob	1	80	—
Gwadar	1	65	—
Total	13	3961

* Data regarding the main falconry party only.

taken by the Arab falconers in this region in the. 1983-84 winter.

The above figure does not appear to be a gross overestimation of the factual position. This is because of the fact that there is still a reasonable population of the bird concen- trated in certain restricted tracts of favourable habitat where there is very limited human disturbance. Other important factors responsi- ble for the mass slaughter of the bird are the modern facilities available with the Arab fal- coners for swift and far-ranging movement and the competition among the various royal hun- ters for the largest bag. Further, the hunting is organized through radio communication and hectic efforts of the local guides. Despite all these facilities, an average of 0.7741 birds is claimed per hunting vehicle-day in specially favourable tracts by very well organized parties. These figures are considerably lower in rela- tively less favourable areas.

Food and Feeding Behaviour :

The majority of data collected agrees with earlier reports that the bird is, omnivorous (Ali

& Ripley 1969, Collar 1979, Mian 1983), con- suming seeds and young shoots of a variety of plants, and animals, especially slow moving insects and some reptiles. The bird exhibits variation in its food, as per availability of animal/plant material in an area. Houbara consumes Salsola sp., Haloxylon sp., Ambasis sp., Malcolmia sp., and T rib ulus sp. in Zhob, Pishin, Nushki and Kharan, thus confirming our previous findings (Mian & Surahio 1983, Mian 1984a) and results obtained from gizzard content analysis (Mian 1986). In lowland deserts of southern and eastern Baluchistan (Gwadar, Dera Bugti, Sibi, Kachhi), the species depends on the berries of Zizyphus sp., seeds of Brassica campestris, Capparis decidua and Eruca sativum, supporting earlier reports from Cholistan (Mirza 1972) and Surahio (1981, 1982, 1983). Our data suggest that the bird consumes a reasonable proportion of animal matter (insects, beetles, mole cricket, ants, grasshoppers), though no lizard/snake was recovered from gizzard contents. This goes against the observations of Mirza (1972) and in favour of those from summering grounds (Alekseev 1980). Further detailed study on gizzard contents collected at different times of the year and from different areas may yield interesting results on energy and water budgeting of the bird.

The diurnal period of maximum activity of the bird coincides with the period of feeding. The main body of information suggests that the bird is mainly active during the day, but the time budgeting seems to be reasonably done in accordance with the surrounding con- ditions of temperature and light, availability of food and human and grazing disturbances. If conditions allow, the bird is active through- out the day, even at noon and afternoon and even at night. However, the bird generally prefers to be inactive during dark nights and during mid-day. There are indications sug-

16

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

gesting that the Houbara in its wintering grounds does move about during moonlit nights, specially when disturbance during the day has prevented normal foraging. Thus, there are persistent reports of the bird feeding mainly during night from Pishin, Quetta, Nushki. This behaviour is presumably due to the general disturbance caused by dense human and live- stock population in all these areas. The noctur- nal feeding of the bird in cultivated fields reported from different areas, including the remote parts of Baluchistan may also be partially due to the same cause.

The major activity of the bird seems to be restricted to the cooler morning and evening hours. The feeding activity of the Houbara starts just before sunrise and lasts till appro- ximately 11.00 a.m. The evening session starts from about 4.00 or 5.00 p.m. and lasts till a little after sunset. During the colder months, i.e.. January and February, the bird is active and forages throughout the day, which may be necessary due to the shorter day length (from 7.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.) and the milder temperature during mid-day. Observations in- dicate that the bird is more active during the morning foraging session than in the evening. These observations agree with those of van Thanner (1912, 1913), regarding the Canary Island race of the Houbara.

Drinking :

From the experience and casual observa- tions reported by the local populace and from the previous findings of Mian & Surahio (1983) in different areas of Baluchistan it would appear that the Houbara is not an obligatory drinker. All the informations sug- gest that though the bird is not a regular visitor to water bodies at fixed times of the day as the sandgrouses are, and can pass long periods without drinking, it may on rare occa- sions take water, if available. Further studies

may indicate some correlation between the type of food consumed and the requirements of water by the bird.

Roosting :

Most of the replies received in response to our questionnaire, from different parts of Baluchistan suggest that the bird has a general tendency to spend the hotter parts of the day, i.e., usually from 11.00 a.m. to about 4.00 or 5.00 p.m., and nights, especially dark nights, at some protective resting place. The hours of roosting are, however, adjusted in accordance with the surrounding conditions and the physio- logical demands of the bird. The Houbara Bustard, like other bustard species including the Great Indian Bustard (Ali and Rahmani 1983) do not have a permanent nesting o 1 resting place; but during the period of un- favourable environmental conditions or after foraging, the individuals select a roosting place for themselves. This is generally on an open plain, from where the bird can spot an ap- proaching predator at a reasonable distance. The bird has a tendency to select a suitable bush and generally tries to hide its head first, relying fully on its protective camouflag- ing coloration or the body. It may even select entirely bare areas for roosting.

Many of the reports suggest that the birds do sleep in a protective bush during roosting hours. However, they indicate that the birds remain vigilant throughout the roosting period and it is hard to take them by surprise. The mid-day roosting behaviour has been fre- quently reported by observers from Canary Islands (Aharoni 1912, van Thanner 1912, 1913).

Response to Disturbance :

The behavioural response to a specific stimulus at a given time seems almost un- predictable. It varies with the type of stimulus.

17

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 85

biotic and abiotic factors in the areas and psychological state of the bird, though the following generalizations can be drawn.

The bird tends to stay at a distance of 5-8 km from large human settlements. This dis- tance generally decreases in direct proportion to the decreasing size of the settlement, and small nomadic camps have no effect on dis- persion of the bird. Some strays have been reported to come in the vicinity of human settlements, especially during the night hours, when human activity subsides. On a number of occasions this was noted by us, both through direct watching and from the pre- sence of footprints, especially around culti- vated tracts. The distance maintained by the Houbara from human settlement may be de- cided by disturbance level. Thus, recent dis- turbance in desolate deserts through hectic falconry has probably forced the bird to find refuge in the vicinity of Kharan town. Simi- larly extensive cultivated tracts in Pishin, Nushki, Khuzdar, Sibi and Kachhi may force the bird to stay in cultivated fields and hence within a radius of 1-2 km of human settle- ments. Conversely, vast favourable desolate areas and relatively low bird population may allow the bird in Zhob, Panjgur and Kohlu to remain at some 16-20 km from human settlements. Though there is no definite study, the present report agrees with the general belief that Houbara avoids large human settlements and small nomadic camps have no bearing on its distribution (Ali and Ripley 1969, Roberts and Savage 1972, Surahio 1981, 1982, Mian and Surahio 1983, Mian 1984a).

The Houbara Bustard being very shy, keeps away from busy roads. It is least disturbed by grazing camels and may even be attracted towards them. Presently available data support our previous observations that the bustard is not scared by the slow and gradual approach

of a haphazardly tainted structure (Mian and Surahio 1983). Grazing sheep/goat do cause some concern to foraging birds and they keep away from cattle. The birds are watchful and use their obliterative camouflage to hide. They are little disturbed by a slow moving and indirectly approaching automobile, but, fast moving, noisy vehicles alarm the birds and cause them to fly away. The bird will hide or fly away from even a slow moving vehicle, if it has been recently chased.

The Houbara tolerate the least a man moving on foot, walking away immediately and maintaining definite distance. It may keep walking ahead of a man, especially in a dried water course, hide in a bush, squat on the ground or may even fly off, if approached closely or if it had been disturbed previously. A man moving along with grazing sheep/goat/ camel causes less alarm to the Houbara and this is exploited by local hunters. The average flight distance of the houbara in Baluchistan is about 300 m. However, this distance varies considerably with the population level of the bird, general disturbance and extent of falconry in the area. Thus, in Kharan with limited hunting activity and higher population levels of bustards some 10-12 years ago, the Houbara frequently allowed human approach to within 20-40 m. With the onset of massive hunting and decreased bustard population in the area, a man can hardly approach the bird to a distance of 100 m. In the presence of a speci- fic blend of interacting factors to Houbara now allows human approach to 100-200 m in Zhob, Kohlu, Sibi, and Quetta; to 200-300 m in Pishin, Nushki, Bisemah, Gwadar, Kachhi and Khuzdar; and to 600-1000 m in Punjgur.

The data suggests that the bustard has variable reaction to the same stimulus, depend- ing on its previous experience. The bird, generally, walks briskly or runs away when alarmed, with outstretched and lowered neck

18

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

and watchful eyes, taking full advantage of the camouflaging effect of its plumage, deceptively, high speed and shrub cover. However, if con- tinuously alarmed the bird flies away, settling at a distance of about 200-800 m where it immediately runs to cover.

The Bustard reacts in particular manner on sighting a falcon. On seeing a flying falcon, the Houbara immediately squats, relying on its protective camouflaging colour. Among shrubs it prefers to protect its neck, rather than the body, probably to avoid a direct stoop on the head. On flat ground the neck is kept flat on the ground, with the hind part of body slightly raised. The Houbara remains remarkably still, as long as the falcon remains in the vicinity, on rare occasions, local people catch such a bird, and one of the hunters from Kharan claimed to have caught four birds with bare hands from one spot. Such behaviourial res- ponse might save the bird from a possible disastrous reduction in number through fal- conry. When a bustard is being chased by a falcon, all other bustards in the area squat motionless and hidden, thus escaping the eyes of the battery of radio coordinated falconers present in 3-5 hunting vehicles, capable of releasing 10-20 falcons if the bustards are spotted. Our data agree with previous reports that the Houbara squirts a gummy anal fluid when pursued by a falcon (Ali and Ripley 1969). A report from Kachhi stated that a Houbara lying on the ground, when detected by an approaching falcon, squirts gummy anal liquid, by raising its hind part with a jerk, causing temporary blindness to the falcon! A flying houbara, on seeing the chasing falcon, immediately tries to fly upward to avoid a possible stoop from the falcon, but bustards seldom succeed in escaping.

Migration :

The information received from different

areas and workers, when analysed allows us to propose migratory routes (Fig. 2), which generally agree with those suggested earlier (Mian and Surahio 1983). The observations so far made, persistently suggest a general north-south autumn migration through very diffused routes, extending from northern Zhob to western Chagai (Azar Chah). This is con- sistent with earlier reports (Mian and Surahio 1983, Mian 1984a, Goriup 1980) but do not agree with Roberts and Savage (1972), sug- gesting well defined routes, occurring around the plains of Muslimbagh; and Anonymous (1972) and Karim and Hassan (1983), pre- suming Iranian origin for the population of Houbaras wintering in Baluchistan. During the return migration in spring the bird follows almost the same routes, though more directly. Our present data partly supports previous hypothesis (Surahio 1981, 1982, 1983) that the population of Houbara wintering in Sind pass through central Baluchistan (via Sibi and Kachhi), though no convincing evidence is available suggesting that the wintering popula- tion of Dera Ismail Khan (N.W.F.R) passes through northern Baluchistan, i.e., Zhob (Malik 1983).

The replies to our enquiry persistently sug- gest a general north-south or south-north orientation of the autumn/spring migrating flocks, though it varies slightly as per the loca- tion of favourable bustard habitats, and orien- tation of mountains and very narrow valleys; the bird generally avoids passage over high mountains and narrow valleys (Mian and Surahio 1983). Thus, the Raskoh Range, forces the entry of the bird into Kharan valley from the southwestern direction; while Siahan and Central Makran ranges allow its entry into Punjgur from southwestern, and into Gwadar from almost a western direction. Relatively extensive interconnected valleys around Much allow the passage of the bird

19

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

N

1 KHARAN

2 PUNJGUR 3. GWADAR

Migration to Pattern

Fig. 2. Line sketch of Baluchistan showing the tentative migration routes of the

Houbara Bustard.

through the Central Brahuii Range, thence reaching Sibi from a northwestern direction. Some reports indicate that the bird population wintering in Khuzdar, enter the area through the west, probably from the adjacent areas of Kachhi.

The information regarding the first sighting of the Houbara in different areas seems sketchy, casual observers being unable to re- cord exact dates. However, data regarding tentative dates of the arrival of first migrants in different areas suggest that the autumn migration is a rather slow process and birds

continue moving gradually towards southern latitudes. The birds arrive in September in northern parts (Chagai, Pishin; some sporadic birds recorded in mid August), towards the end of September or early October in central parts (Kharan, Sibi, Kachhi, Khuzdar), during mid- or end of November in southern parts (Bisemah, Punjgur), and the birds are not fre- quent till January in extreme southern parts (Gwadar; sporadic birds recorded in Novem- ber). This indicate that the birds generally arrive earlier in northern latitudes and later in southern latitudes. These observations largely

20

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

agree with the previously available reports, suggesting that Houbara starts migrating from U.S.S.R. in early September (Ponomavera

1979) or even the first half of August (Mes-

surier 1904) reaching northern Baluchistan in late September or early October (Mian and Surahio 1983, Mian 1984) and continue moving deeper into the province after

consuming available food, in the area (Mian and Surahio, loc cit.) reaching Punjab and Sind in October (Roberts and Savage 1972, Mirza 1983. Surahio 1983),

The precise dates of onset of spring migra- tion are hard to record. It appears to start in March in all the parts and is complete by early April, suggesting that it is more abrupt than the autumn migration. These migrants reach summering grounds in U.S.S.R. towards the end of March or by mid- April (Alekseev

1980) .

The present data confirm our earlier hypo- thesis (Mian 1984) suggesting a larger size for the autumn migrating flock in northern areas and dispersal of the birds causing a smaller flock size in the southern areas. The size of immigrating flocks seems to be directly proportionate to the distance travelled to the wintering grounds (Fig. 3), so that flocks of 15-25 observed in northern parts (Zhob) decreases to 10-15 in Pishin, Chagai. Kohlu and Kharan; 8-10 in Sibi and Kachhi; 4-8 in Bisemah and Khuzdar and 4-6 in Gwadar. The data collected by Alekseev (1980) sug- gest that, at the onset of autumn migration 63% of the birds are in ones and 24% in twos, while leaving the summering grounds. The correlation of our results with those of Alek- seev (loc. cit) suggests that the larger flocks are formed during migration, and secondary dispersal occurs in the wintering grounds, pro- bably due to intraspecific competition. The exact significance of this migratory behaviour is hard to explain and need further studies.

The information conveyed regarding the size of spring migrating flock suggests that it is smaller than of the autumn migrants. Gene- rally it ranges between two and eight. This observation is in sharp contrast to our previous report suggesting that the size of the spring migrating flock is larger (Mian and Surahio 1983). Though further data would reveal the exact situation, our present data provide a better explanation, as the spring migration is rather direct and reports from summering grounds indicate that birds reach in ones (50%), twos (20%) and 3-8 (30%), (Alek- seev 1980).

Trapping and Domestication :

The data indicate that very limited trapping is being practised in Baluchistan. During recent years, decreasing population of Houbara has rendered this hobby as time consuming, tire- some and with little chance of success. Distri- bution of firearms and automobiles has, on one hand, increased the hunting pressure, while on the other hand decrease in trapping success is due to the associated disturbance. Trapping is reported to be possible but difficult, the birds being very clever, cautious and extra- vigilant. Apart from triangular enclosure of local bushes with net used in Chagai and Kharan (Mian and Surahio 1983) and net laid on ground as in Kachhi, Sibi, Kohlu, Dera Bugti and Pishin (Mian 1984a) the affinity of the bird for Capparis decidua is exploited in northeastern flank of Baluchistan and adjacent areas. An isolated dense bush of the plant is selected and netted all around except at the side where it is curved into a V-shaped entry point. The bird is attracted towards this plant from long distances and by habit enters the bush through the open end and is finally trapped. This technique is quite effective, re- quiring less physical labour.

There is no information that the Houbara is kept as a domesticated bird. It is generally

21

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 85

Fig. 3. Line sketch of Baluchistan showing the size of autumn migrating flock in different areas of the Province. The figures in the map represent the number of the

birds in the flock.

believed that the bird cannot be kept as a pet, and it has been kept in captivity for only 10 days. The trapped birds are either eaten by the trapper or presented to an influential person as a delicacy.

Flock Formation :

Though the Houbara is gregarious in its

wintering ground, forming flocks of various sizes in different areas, individual birds main- tain a reasonable distance from one another. The flock size varies from 5 to 40 in different areas and is decided by population level of the bird and suitability of habitat. Rarely, flocks of larger size are also observed. Luckily, we saw a rare flock of 500-800 birds flying

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

over the area around Yakmuch (Gala Chah). This flock started appearing as a few birds in flight and the size of the flock gradually in- creased. The flock was observed for some time, when the hovering birds made fascinating pattern of brown and white. The cause for the formation of such a large flock could not be ascertained except that some hunters with powerful motor cycles were believed to be present in the area. Our discussions in Kharan suggested that such large flocks can some- times be seen in favourable bustard tracts in

Refer

Aharoni, J. (1912) : Houbara macqueeni Gray. Orn. Jahrb., 23: 1-15.

Alekseev, A. F. (1980): The Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni in the northwestern Kyzylkum. Zool. Zhurn., 59: 1263-1266. (Original text in Russian, English translation by M. G. Wilson, ICBP) .

Ali, S. & Rahmani, A. R. (1983): Study of ecology of certain endangered species and their habitat, The Great Indian Bustard, Annual Report I, 1981-82. Bombay natural History Society, 154 pp.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2, Oxford University Press, Bombay, Lond. N.Y.

Anonymous (1972) : Houbara in Baluchistan. Outdoorman, 2: 15.

Bannerman, B. A. (1963): Birds of Atlantic Islands, I. Edinburgh.

Collar, N. J. (1979) : The Birds of the Western Palaearctic. Vol. II. (eds: S. Cramp and S. Kel). Oxford University Press, London, N.Y. : 649-655.

Collar, N. J. (1980): The world status of the Houbara: a preliminary review. Symposium Papers on the Great Bustard Otis tarda (Sofia, Bulgaria, May 26 th, 1978) and the Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata (Athens, Greece, May 24th, 1979) FISG/CIC/Game Conservency: 12 pp (no pagin).

Goriup, P. D. (1980) : Report to the Secretary, Sind Wildlife Management Board on Houbara Bus- tard ( Chlamydotis undulata ) in Pakistan (Unpub- lished working document).

(1981) : The Houbara Bustard,

the deeper western parts, though the appear- ance of such large flocks is gradually becoming a very rare phenomenon.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to M/s. K. M. Shams (Chief Conservator), M. Shafiq (DFO, Wild- life), Arbab Inayat Ullah (SDFO, Wildlife) and a number of workers of the Provincial Forest Department, whose unstinting help made this study possible.

ENCES

Houbara conservation and research in Pakistan. Western Tanager, Los Angeles Audubon Soc. 48 (4): 3-6.

Haddane, B. (1983) : Distribution and ecology of a threatened species of Houbara-Bustard ( Chlamy- dotis undulata). ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Karim, S. I. & Hasan, A. (1983) : Houbara Bus- tard in Pakistan. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983. & WWF-Pakistan Newsletter, 2(4) : 3-6.

Khan, U. F. (1983) : A note on bustard in Pakis- tan. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Lack, P. K. (1983): The Canarian Houbara: Survey-results, 1979. Bustard Studies), No. 1: 45-50.

Malik, M. M. (1983) : Distribution and conser- vation of Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni in NWFP (Pakistan). ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Messurier, A. D. (1904): Game Shore and Water Birds of India. 4th ed. Lond.

Mian, A. (1983): Conservational perspective of Houbara with special reference to southwestern Pakistan. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

(1984a) : A contribution to biology of

Houbara: 1982-83 wintering population. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 87(3): 537-545.

(1984b): Houbara in Baluchistan:

1983-84 population status. WWF-Pakistan Newsletter 3(3): 1-3.

(1985) : Ecological impact of Arab

Falconry of Houbara Bustard with special reference to southwestern Baluchistan. Environmental Conser- vation 13: 417-423.

(1985a): A contribution to the bio-

23

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 85

logy of Houbara ; Some evidence of breeding in Baluchistan. Proc. 5 th Zool. Pakistan Congress : 261-267.

— — (in press) : A contribution to the bio-

logy of Houbara Bustard: 1983-84 population levels in western Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

(1986) : A contribution to the bio- logy of Houbara: Some studies on gizzard contents from 1983-84 wintering population in the western Baluchistan. Pakistan J. Zool. 18: 363-370.

Mian, A. & Dasti, A. A. (1984) : Houbara and Baluchistan: 1982-83 conservational status. Bustard Studies, (Accepted).

Mian, A. & Rafique, S. (1984) : Conservational perspective of Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis un~ dulata macqueeni) with reference to Baluchistan. Pakistan (Peshawar), No. 10 autumn: 37-44.

Mian, A. & Surahio, M. I. (1983): Biology of Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni) with reference to Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 80 { 1): 83-90.

Mirza, Z. B. (1972): Houbara faces trial. Out- doorman, 1 : 40-42,

— — (1983): Houbara and Cholistan. ISOB,

Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Ponomareva, T. (1979): The Houbara Bustard: Present status and conservation perspectives. Okhota

i. okhotnoch’s khozyaistvo, 11: 27. (Original text

in Russian, English translation by M. G. Wilson, ICBP) .

Roberts, T. (1983): The Houbara ( Chlamydotis undulata) in Pakistan, in relation to conservation. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

Roberts, T. J. & Savage, C.D.W. (1972) : Houbara Bustard and its management. Outdoorman (Karachi), 7(8): 37-39.

Siddiqi, M. S. U. (1972): Identifying the bus- tards. ibid. 2(7 & 8): 29^39.

Scott, D. A. (1975) : The houbara bustard in Iran. Iran. Dept. Env. (Div. Parks and Wildlife), typescript report, 23 November, 1975.

Surahio, M. I. (1981): Houbara bustard in Pakis- tan— Research and conservation. WWF/IUCN, Pro- ject No. 855. Annual report, (Unpublished work- ing document).

(1982) : Houbara bustard in Pakis- tan-Research and conservation. WWF/IUCN Project No. 855, Annual Report. (Unpublished working document) .

(1983): Ecology and distribution

of Houbara Bustard in Sind. ISOB, Peshawar, Oct. 4-7, 1983.

van Thanner, R. (1912) : Von den Kanaren. Or«. Jahrb., 23: 221-228.

(1913) : Wild und Jagd auf Kana- ren. Beutche Jager-Zeitung., 61 (36) : 569-572.

annexure I: Facsimile of the questionnaire. (English translation of the original circulated in Urdu).

HOUBARA RESEARCH LABORATORY ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF BALUCHISTAN QUETTA

Note: Houbara is called in Pushto ' Sar\ Zap; in Baluchi ‘Charaz’ and in Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi ‘Taloor’.

Your name

Locality (Full address)

1 . When did you see the first Houbara this year? Please mention date and month.

2. What was the size of the incoming group?

3. What is the part of the day exploited by the incoming bird? Day/night; moonlit night/dark night.

4. What is the direction of the incoming group?

5. Does this bird remain in your area throughout the wintering period? If not, at what part of the year can the bird be seen in your area, and in which direction it leaves the area?

6. What is the major type of terrain in your area: hilly/plain; sandy/stony; hard/loose?

7. What are the dominant plants of your area? (Please mention local names).

8. Is the major part of the land in your area barren or arable?

9. What are the bustard tracts in your area (men- tion names)?

BIOLOGY OF THE HOUBARA (CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA MACQUEENI)

10. What does this bird eat?

1 1 . What part of the day is exploited by the bird for its feeding activity?

12. What is the part of the day when maximum number of birds can be seen?

13. What is the maximum number of the birds you have seen in a day. (specify area in which seen) ?

14. What is the usual size of the flock in different bustard tracts?

15. What is your approximation regarding the num- ber of the birds visiting your area during this wintering season? Were they more or less than the previous years?

16. Have you ever cared to examine the type of food present in the gizzard? If yes. what were the major food items?

17. Does this bird sleep? If yes, where?

18. Have you ever seen the bird drinking water?

19. Can the bird be live-trapped : If yes, what technique is exploited?

20. Have you ever kept the bird as a pet? If yes, how?

21. What is the total number of the birds captured by the local hunters? If possible, please indicate the number of the males and females separately.

22. What was the number of parties of foreign hunters that visited your area? Please indicate the number of hunting vehicles, falcons, number of the Houbara hunted, any other wild animal hunted. If possible, please indicate the number of males and females separately.

23. In your opinion, is there a declining trend in

the population of this bird in the last ten years?

24. What is the approximate distance from which a bird flies away on seeing a man?

25. What is. the approximate distance which is be- ing maintained by the bird from human settlement?

26. What is the reaction of the bird to grazing livestock or jeep etc.?

27. Does the Houbara lay eggs in your area? If yes, where (Name the area), when (Name the month or season)? What was the number of eggs in the nest you spotted? Were the nests in bushes or on the ground? What was the shape and size of the egg? Mention colour also.

28. In your opinion what is the total number of females that lay eggs in your area?

29. What is the approximate time of year used by the Houbara for returning from your area during spring.

30. Have you ever seen the bird during summer months?

3 1 . What is the size of the flock of the spring migrants?

32. What is the part of the day exploited by the bird for spring migration?

33. What is the approximate size and colour of this bird in your area?

34. What are the major animals of your area?

35. Any other information.

Thank you for your co-operation.

25

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS OF

SOUTHERN INDIA (LEPIDOPTERA: RHOPALOCERA ) 1

Torben B. Larsen2 [Continued from Vol. 84 (3) : 584]

241 A. Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa Moschler

The water snow flat is not rare and sometimes considerably more numerous than the other two members of the genus. It is readily recognised by the clearly defined white patch on the hindwing upperside. It flies in evergreen forest to the top of the subtropical zone and I would not be very surprised to find permanent colonies in some of the plateau sholas. It has the normal habits of the genus, often basking in the sun on the underside of a leaf, visiting flowers and occasionally damp patches. It is more frequently seen on bird droppings than the two others. Roosting takes place with the wings held flat on the upperside of leaves. It is found in suitable places in Sri Lanka, peninsular India, and then from Simla east to South China and Hong Kong, and south to Sundaland proper.

242. Gerosis bhagava bhagava Moore (not mentioned in W-B)

The COMMON YELLOWBREASTED FLAT (more widely known under the generic name Daimio) is very rare in the Nilgiris and apparently most places in South India. There are only about six in the British Museum (Natural History). Hampson failed to find it, Wynter- Blyth took two at Kallar, where I have also taken two and seen one (16.vi, 29. vi and 13.vii). Both my specimens were captured when coming to water, the third one was seen sitting on a leaf in dense jungle. At the Forest

1 Accepted January 1987.

2 Snoghoj alle 29C, 2770 Kastrup, Denmark.

Research Institute at Peechi there is a speci- men bred from Dahlbergia lanceolaria. Apart from the Western Ghat complex the species may be found from Nepal east to Burma and Thailand and it is everywhere rare.

243. Pseudocoladenia dan dan Fabricius

(Coladenia dan)

The fulvous pied flat is fairly common in the Nilgiris though usually not numerous and rarely found far from forest. It goes to the upper limit of the subtropical zone but is absent from the plateau proper. It is fond of flowers and bird droppings, but is not much of a visitor to water. The flight is extremely rapid, and sometimes long lasting aerial dis- play flights are made in shady clearings. It is found in South India (surprisingly not in Sri Lanka), and then from Kulu east in China and Sundaland.

244. Pseudocoladenia indrana indra Evans

(< Coladenia indrana)

The tricolour flat is one of the loveliest skippers in the Nilgiris, being much more contrasting in colour than the previous species. The dry season morph is sometimes deep orange with bright yellow marginal spots. The wet season form is more unicoloured but may be of a beautiful ochreous hue, especially in the female. Confusion between the two species of Pseudocoladenia is highly unlikely. In habits and habitats the species is close to the pre- vious one, but it is considerably scarcer and more limited to the lowland evergreen forests.

26

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIR1 MOUNTAINS

The distribution covers Sri Lanka, South India, then from East Nepal to Burma and Thailand. It does not appear to be a common species anywhere.

245. Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni Swinhoe

The common small flat is much smaller

than any of the Pyrginae so far discussed. It is a rare Nilgiri butterfly apparently limited to the wetter lowland forests of the western slopes. I have taken one or two on most of visits to the Nadgani area but otherwise I have not seen it. In Sri Lanka the ecological tolerance seems much wider. Possibly Saran- gesa purendra in India forms some sort of ecological vicariant in the less mesic Indian habitats of the genus. The species is found in Sri Lanka and South India, then again from Kangra east to Indo-China and Yunan.

246. Sarangesa purendra pandra Evans

The spotted small flat is found in much of peninsular India and has been involved in various taxonomic and nomenclatural confu- sions with the previous species. There are two Nilgiri specimens with no additional data in the British Museum (Natural History) but I have not come across it myself. At first sight it seems to form an ecological vicariant to S. dasahara in more dry habitats, but I have not seen either sufficiently to be quite sure. I have only met this species once when it was common enough in the Gir Lion Reserve in Saurashtra in October 1986. According to Bell both fly in the same place at the same time and in equal numbers in North Kanara. It is endemic to the Indian subcontinent.

247. Tapena twaithesi twaithesi Moore (not mentioned in W-B)

The angled flat is an unmistakable butter- fly with its coal coloured upperside and strongly angled wings. The name hampsoni is some-

times applied to the South Indian populations. It is a rare skipper in the lowland evergreen forests, penetrating the subtropical forests, and I have only seen it six or seven times. Nearly all my specimens have been taken singly at water at Nadgani and near Glenburn, but I have seen one at Kallar. According to Bell it is very common in the area around Dharwar, but normally it is not a common species. The range covers Sri Lanka and South India, then from Sikkim east to Malaya, Sumatra and Borneo.

248. Odontoptilum anguSata angulata Felder & Felder

The banded angle is a beautiful skipper that is generally rather rare in the Nilgiris though widely distributed in the lowland forests tracts except for the very driest. I have never come across more than two during any single day. In habits it is not dissimilar to the Tagiades though perhaps rather less fond of open sunshine and more willing to visit water and baits. One of my specimens was taken on otter droppings deep inside a cave into which three male Papilio polymnestor had also made their way. The species is found in suitable hilly country in much of India, east to southern China and Sundaland.

249. Caprone ransonnetti potiphera Hewitson

The golden angle is a common butterfly in

the lowland forests from the mixed deciduous to the wettest evergreen. It is a very variable insect, but the variation does not seem to be linked with season in any consistent manner, though I have not studied this systematically. The species is less shy of sunlight than most of the group and males often perch along open paths and along forest edges. Here they are very pugnacious and fights are often seen. When perching, the males invariably retract their forelegs slightly, thus everting a promi-

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nent brush which makes them look as if they are bearded. This is done independently of the presence of females and the impression is given that it serves to dispense a territorial pheromone. Both flowers and damp patches are visited. I have seen a relatively small dragonfly eating a specimen of this butterfly; it is amazing that it could manage to subdue so powerful an insect. The range covers Sri Lanka and South India, with extensions to Pachmarhi and Orissa. Other members of the genus are found elsewhere in the Oriental re- gion. Their names are sometimes quoted in older literature on Indian butterflies, and the name ransonnettii has been used beyond its actual range.

250. Caprona alida vespa Evans (not included in W-B)

The spotted angle appears to be very rare in southern India but the British Museum (Natural History) contains two definite Nilgiri specimens, apparently those that were respon- sible for the inclusion of the name C. agama in Hampsoirs Nilgiri list. The spotted upper surfaces are very different from any of the forms of the previous species and I am certain that I have not seen it. According to Wood- house (1952) the flight is much more subdued than that of C. ransonnetti. The range covers Sri Lanka and South India, then from Nepal east to South China and Hong Kong.

251. Gomalia elma albofasdata Moore

The African mallow skipper is a rare little dry zone skipper that is much more common in Arabia and Africa than it is in India. In the Niigiris the main habitat is the mixed deciduous forest zone where the larval food plant Abu - til on is common, and the rarity of the species is puzzling. I have also taken it at Chamundi Hill in Mysore (xiL83). The genus is mono-

basic and the single species is found all over Africa, southern Arabia and most of India.

252. Spialia galba galba Fabricius ( Syrichtus galba)

The Indian grizzled skipper is a distinc- tive little butterfly with an unusual degree of ecological tolerance that is common over much of the Niigiris irrespective of altitude, rainfall and general surroundings. It is missing, only inside dense evergreen forest, but once there is some sort of clearing it will be colonised. The butterfly always flies low in relatively open places and is fond of flowers, occasionally coming to damp patches, but it is very un- obtrusive and easily overlooked. It is essen- tially a butterfly of Sri Lanka and the Indian subcontinent, though a few disjunct popula- tions exist further east. In Africa it is replaced by Spialia mafa Trimen with different facies but almost identical genitalia [see de Jong (1978) for an interesting monograph of the species],

Hesperiinae

253. Aeromachus pygmaeus Fabricius

The pygmy grass hopper is the smallest of the South Indian skippers and its distribution is limited to the Niigiris, Coorg and Kanara. It is mainly found in open grassland in the immediate vicinity of forest in the wetter low- land tracts where it is sometimes common. Personally I have only taken about a dozen specimens at Kallar and on Nadgani Ghat. Like many of our smallest butterflies it is very fond of Tridax flowers, but I have never seen it at water. It is so small and inconspicuous that it is easily overlooked. The somewhat similar Aeromachus dubius dubius Elwes & Edwards might conceivably turn up in the Niigiris as well.

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

254. Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides Fabricius

The bush hopper is an unobtrusive little

butterfly of the grasslands in wetter forest for- mations where it may be locally common. I have seen it in Kallar and on the Nadgani Ghat though not very frequently. The golden tone of the ground colour is very appealing and quite different in tone from the other orange skippers. It is a much weaker insect than the Potanthus and Telicota and usually flies low in grasslands in search of flowers. The range is a wide one covering Sri Lanka, suitable places on the Indian peninsula. West Bengal and then east to China, Hong Kong and Sundaland.

255. Halpe homo lea Hindu Evans ( Holpe egena)

The Indian ace is one of the most common lowland skippers in the Nilgiris, inhabiting forests ranging from the mixed deciduous to the wettest evergreen. It is seen mainly when it emerges from bamboo jungles to sip moisture from damp patches, though in the morning males may be found basking in sunshine along paths and forest clearings. Like some of the other Halpe it is fond of fresh cowpats and may be caught also on carnivore dung and decaying matter. The distribution covers Sri Lanka and southern India, then from the level of Sikkim east to southern China. The nomi- nate subspecies is supposedly from Singapore, but in view of the fact that the species has not been recorded from Malaysia this seems doubtful.

256. Halpe porus Mabille ( Halpe moorei)

moore’s ace has had a complex nomencla- torial history. Hampson used the name beturia, Wvnter-Blyth moorei, but the valid name is as above. All Nilgiri records are from the Nadgani Ghat area, though doubtless it is

found elsewhere on the western slopes in low- land evergreen forest. It is fairly common in the Nadgani area, almost as much so as H. homolea from which it is easily distinguished by having two cell spots on the forewing, and by its generally darker colour with a white rather than yellow band on the hindwing under- side. One day I collected more than a dozen on still steaming buffalo dung on a drizzly morning. The range covers South India, then from Sikkim east to South China; also on the Andamans.

257. Sovia hyrtacus de Niceville (not included by W-B)

This skipper (the bicolour ace would be a suitable vernacular name) seems to be very rare in the Nilgiris and elsewhere in southern India where it is endemic. It is readily recog- nised by the hindwing underside where the basal half is cream and the marginal half brown, a bit like that of the much larger Hyarotis adrastus. I have a single specimen from the base of Nadgani Ghat from 23. ix. 1986 and a few more had been noted by earlier authors. I have also seen one on the Gersoppa Ghat in Kanara where the species also seems to be rare.

258. Thoressa honorei de Niceville {Halpe honorei)

The madras ace is endemic to southern India but is closely related to the Sri Lankan T. decorata Moore and to other species in NE India and Burma. It is not a common butterfly but in suitable places it will be met with in small numbers during most visits. I have taken it mainly on the Nadgani Ghat and in smaller numbers at Kallar. Mostly they have been taken in the early mornings when perching on a leaf at the forest edge or along paths but it will also visit flowers. It is a most attractive little butterfly which is quite diffe-

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rent in pattern to all the other orange skippers of the area. The flight is very fast and damp patches are only rarely visited.

259. Thoressa astigmata Swinhoe (not included in W-B)

The unbranded ace is large for this group of genera and the upperside is reminiscent of the Hyarotis and Quedara. It is a great rarity in the Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth caught a speci- men in the Nadgani area, and I collected a single male on otter dung at the foot of the Nadgani Ghat (20.vii). It looks a species capable of extremely swift flight and Bell of Kanara emphasised how rarely the species was seen in nature. It is endemic to southern India and is almost certainly strictly limited to wet evergreen forest with bamboo.

260. Thoressa sitala de Niceville (not included in W-B)

The sitala ace is endemic to South India from where there are records from the Nilgiris and from Coorg. Apparently the species is very rare and there are less than a score of publish- ed records of specimens, a few of these being re- corded by Hampson. I know nothing about the species, but it is almost certainly limited to the wetter evergreen forests at low levels.

261. Thoressa evershedi Evans (not included in W-B)

evers hed’s ace has been recorded from the Palnis, Nilgiris and Annamalais and is endemic to South India. I know nothing about it though doubtless it is limited to wet lowland evergreen forest like the others of its genus.

262. Iambrix salsala luteipennis Plbtz

The chestnut bob is often a common butterfly in the denser forest types at lower and middle levels and deep inside the forest it is sometimes the only skipper present. It

usually frequents shady places but will often sun itself in shafts of sunlight when not search- ing out the minute flowers in small clearings. The flight is rarely more than a few centi- metres above the ground. The species is one of the few skippers consistently to use only four of its legs for perching or walking, though I have seen this also in Suniana sunias Water- house in Papua New Guinea. For what purpose the front legs are being kept in reserve I have been unable to discover. The species is found in Sri Lanka and in South India, then from Nepal east to Hong Kong and southern China and south to Sundaland.

263. Psolos fisfigo subfasciatus Moore

The coon is a very unusual skipper found in the wetter lowland forests of the western slopes. It is not normally very common, but towards the end of the monsoon numbers in- crease. The flight is very slow for a skipper and the wings large in relation to body size. The wings are an almost unmarked dark brown. When sitting on a green leaf the pecu- liar downcurved shape of the forewings may be noticed. It is so pronounced that the tips of the front wings are several millimetres apart in the normal resting posture. The Western Ghats population is strongly disjunct; the species recurs from northeastern India to the Philip- pines, Sulawesi and Sundaland.

264. Notocrypta paralysos alysia Evans

The common banded demon is one of two very similar species which are almost jet black with a white forewing band. The present species lacks white apical spots on the forewings which are prominent in the following species. In the Nilgiris it seems to be limited to the lowland evergreen forests of the western slopes and 1 have only collected it in the Nadgani Ghat area in moderate numbers. Elsewhere in Asia it may be very common. Usually it skulks

30

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

about in dark undergrowth but often ventures out to feed on flowers, not infrequently on overcast days. The flight is almost as fast as that of the Celaenorrhinus which, because of the white forewing bands, it greatly resembles on the wing. The range covers Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats, then from Mussoorie east to the Philippines, Sulawesi and the Lesser Sunda Islands.

265. Notocrypta curvifascia curvifascia Felder & Felder

The restricted demon seems to be a butter- fly mainly of the moist deciduous forests of the Wynaad where I have taken my only Nilgiri specimen, though Gordon Thompson collected one at Kallar in September 1986, the only one ever recorded for the southern slopes of either of the two Notocrypta. My belief that it is a species of the moist-deciduous forest is bolstered by the fact that I found it quite common under such conditions in the Biligiri- ranga Mountains together with Celaenorrhinus ruficornis. It, too, is found in both Sri Lanka and southern India, then from Mussoorie to South China and Sundaland.

266. Udaspes folus Cramer

The grass demon is a very distinctive butterfly that is taxonomically close to the Notocrypta. The big white patch on the disc of the hindwing upperside is enough to tell it from any other South Indian skipper. While it may turn up anywhere in the Nilgiris, it seems to be mostly rather scarce and unpredictable. From late August through October 1986 I regularly had specimens pass through my Kotagiri garden at high speed in what looked like a dispersal movement of some sort, but which was not correlated with the migrations that were taking place at the time. It coincided with the first captures of the butterfly at Kallar. I have also taken it at the very top of the

Biligirirangas near Flonametti Estate. It is a rare butterfly in Sri Lanka from where it is found throughout the Oriental and Australian regions without displaying geographical varia- tion. It is generally rather uncommon every- where and during several visits to many Asian countries I have only secured one specimen in Malaysia apart from my Indian ones.

267. Amelia mercara Evans ( Astictopterus jama)

The coorg forest hopper is rather similar to Psolos fuligo but may be immediately dis- tinguished through the presence of three small white apical spots on the forewings that are always missing in the latter. I have never come across it in the Nilgiris but it seems that it may sometimes be found in some numbers on the Nadgani Ghat which does not surprise me. Generally it is not a common species and it is endemic to the Western Ghats.

268. Arnetta vindhiana nilgiriana Moore

The vindhyan bob is endemic to southern

and central India where it appears to frequent wet grasslands at lower levels in most type of terrain. Ssp. nilgiriana represents a southern group of the species merging with the nominate subspecies in the Nilgiri Wynaad. It seems to be found under a variety of climatic condi- tions and presumably the exact conditions of the wet grassland is of more importance than the macroclimate. Certainly it is a most unusual distribution pattern. Hampson considered it common and Wynter-Blyth collected it on the Nadgani Ghat in October. I have never come across it in the Nilgiris but have a few from Sholayar in the Annamalais.

269. Suastus gremius gremius Fabricius

The Indian palm bob is surprisingly rare in the Nilgiris not least when it is considered how many palms there are in Mettupalayam/

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Kallar and along the rice growing areas of the western slopes. I have only small numbers from Kallar and from the Nadgani Ghat agricultu- ral areas, and I doubt if it ascends the ghats to any great extent. According to Wynter- Blyth it comes to both water and bird drop- pings, but I only know it as avid visitor to Lantana flowers. When the female lays eggs she lands on a palm frond, walks backwards for a distance equal to two to four times her own length, and then either flies off or depo- sits a single, large brick-red egg. This colour is unusual but I have little doubt it is meant to mimic the dark, damaged spots often found on palm leaves. The range covers Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Indo- China, Taiwan and parts of southern China.

270. Suastus minuta bipunctus Swinhoe (not included by W-B)

The small palm bob is very similar to the preceding species but on average a little smaller and with the black hindwing underside spots somewhat differently disposed. There are a few old records from the Nadgani Ghat area but I know nothing of it at all. It is found in Sri Lanka and South India, then from Sikkim east to the Philippines and Java, appa- rently bypassing Sundaland proper, being absent from Malaysia and Sumatra. The dis- tribution indicates that it inhabits rather more mesic habitats than its more widespread congener.

271. Cupitha purreea Moore

The wax dart is so named because the male has a prominent brand on the hindwing upper- side which contains a waxy substance. The species can be recognised at a glance, in South India at least, by its wholly immaculate yellow underside. It is quite a pretty little butterfly but it is also a scarce one. I have taken five specimens only, at Kallar, always sitting

on green leaves in the morning before 10.00.

I have never observed it flying or doing any- thing else, but every now and then, suddenly one will be sitting in exactly the same posture as the last one. The species is of particular interest inasmuch as the larval food plants are Terminalia and Combretum ; it is the only member of the Hesperiinae to have returned secondarily to dicotyledonous food plants. The range is wide, covering practically the entire Oriental region, though not Sri Lanka and peninsular India. It is everywhere rare. The genus is monobasic.

272. Baracus vittatus Felder & Felder

The hedge hopper is a very plastic species in a monobasic genus. The nominate sub- species from Sri Lanka is very light greenish white above, three Indian subspecies are very different. Ssp. subditus Moore (Palnis, Travan- core and Nilgiris) intergrades with ssp. hamp- soni Elwes & Edwards in our area, extending north to Kanara. Ssp gotha Evans occurs in the Annamalais. The main differences lie in the patterns of the underside. A separate sub- species is found from Sikkim to Yunan in China. I have not come across the species though it has been recorded as not rare in the Nilgiris by earlier authors.

273. Hyarotis adrastus praba Moore

The tree flitter is a readily identified medium-sized skipper that is relatively scarce in evergreen forest at low and medium levels. I have only seen it three times; once at Glen- burn (12.vi), and twice at Kallar ( 19 . viii & 30. ix), one of which was taken by Gordon Thompson. Hampson found it rare on the northern slopes, but says that it is common on the southern slopes. He must have run into some sort of mass emergence, especially since Wynter-Blyth did not see any. I am quite con- vinced that it is scarce and Bell, writing of

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NLLGIRI MOUNTAINS

Kanara, commented that it was hardly ever seen though he was able to find the caterpillar quite often. The distribution covers Sri Lanka and South India, then from Himachal to Hong Kong and Sundaland. It seems likely that the rare Hyarotis microstictum coorga Evans will also turn up in the Nilgiris.

274. Quedara basiflava de Niceville (not mentioned by Wynter-Blyth)

The yellow base tree flitter is a rare endemic South Indian butterfly which has been recorded by Hampson for the Nadgani Ghat area. It is a most distinctive species with the bases of the hindwing underside liberally mark- ed with egg-yolk yellow. Apart from the fact that it is rare and that it is almost certainly limited to the wettest evergreen forests, I know nothing of this insect. Another rare skipper that could occur under similar conditions is Plastingia sala Hewitson.

275. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis Fabricius

The giant redeye is the largest skipper in the Nilgiris and it seems to be quite rare. This was Hampson’s opinion and Wynter-Blyth caught one only at Kallar. On my first collect- ing trip in the Nilgiris (14.iv) I collected a fresh male with my fingers off the nose of Gordon Thompson. A week later I found seve- ral larvae and pupae on a palm in the com- pound of Mr Dharman near Glenburn, several of which hatched in Kotagiri. Since then I never saw it again. Given the profusion of palms in the Kallar and Mettupalayam areas its rarity is curious, not least since it is some- times quite common and attracted to light at night. The absence of its banana eating relative Erionota thrax Hiibner is also puzzling. The species is found practically throughout the Oriental region.

276. Matapa aria Moore

The common redeye is not rare in thick

lowland forest with bamboo, out of which it seldom ventures. It is best caught early in the morning (sometimes even before 07.00) when it suns itself on green leaves along forest paths, very occasionally visiting flowers. I have never seen it on damp patches. Later in the day it disappears completely and is impossible to procure. The red eyes will, even at a distance, tell it apart from the somewhat similar mem- bers of the Baoris and Caltoris. It belongs to a genus that is centred on Sundaland and is the only one to be found in our area. The genus was recently monographed by de Jong (1983). The range covers Sri Lanka and India to South China and the Philippines, Sundaland to Java and Borneo, but not Sulawesi, where similar species occur. It is the most widely distributed of all the Matapa.

277. Taractrocera maevius sagara Moore The common grass dart in my experience

is scarce in the Nilgiris and I have but one specimen from plantations near Mettupalayam. Hampson collected only four, while Wynter- Blyth considered it to be not rare at Kallar where I never saw it. The species is reputed to be very local and probably I never found just the right spots. The habitat seems to be grassy places under a variety of macroclimatic conditions from the plains up to at least 1600 m, though in South India it appears to be more of a plains species. The genus seems to be very fond of flowers. The species is common in Sri Lanka and is endemic to Sri Lanka, India, Burma and Thailand.

278. Taractrocera ceramas ceramas Hewitson The Tamil grass dart is a conspicuous in- sect of open grasslands at all levels and in most types of habitat, though chiefly the mon- tane grasslands, in open spaces of moist- deciduous forest, and along grassy verges of forest roads in the wettest parts of the low-

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land forests. Each and every population of this butterfly seems to be special in one way or another. Typical ceramas is from the high level grasslands and is small and pale. Low- land specimens, often referred to as ssp. lynx Moschler, are usually larger and more luxu- riant. According to Evans (1949) the taxon lynx is not subspecifically valid, while ssp. media from Kanara, ssp. oberthueri from the Annamalai, and ssp. nicevillei from the Bombay Presidency are. I have personally only found small and weakly coloured nominate ceramas in the Nilgiris, at high altitudes near Mukurti and Avalanche, and some larger and more luxuriant forms at Nadgani and the Nilgiri Wynaad approaching media. In the Biligiri- ranga Mountains 1 collected a large series of large specimens from 1300 to 1900 m which match none of my Nilgiri ones. I doubt that the very real variation from population to population of this butterfly in South India can be described in conventional subspecific terms. In addition to South India the species also occurs from Manipur to southern China.

279. Oriens concinna Elwes & Edwards

The Tamil dartlet is a great rarity in the

Nilgiris, being confined to the upper subtropi- cal and montane forests, where it is very diffi- cult to find. Wynter-Blyth caught two below Coonoor. I have three from the Longwood Shola near Kotagiri (20. iv, 23 . viii, and 11.x) one collected by Gordon Thompson. This is the fruit of more than twenty visits to this lovely forest. The species is endemic to the mountains of South India, south of the main Western Ghats which do not appear to be high enough.

280. Oriens goloides Moore {Oriens gola)

The Indian dartlet resembles the members of the next genus, but may readily be recog- nised by the layout of the upperside orange

markings of the forewings where the discal band touches those of the cell. According to Wynter-Blyth it is sometimes common on the Nadgani Ghat, but I have only found it occa- sionally at Kallar and Nadgani. It is found in evergreen forest of the tropical and subtropi- cal types, occasionally being found up to 1600 m or so, above which it is replaced by the preceding species. In habits it is similar to the Potanthus , spending most of its time sitting on green leaves, occasionally coming to flowers and only very rarely to water. It is found in Sri Lanka and South India, then from Kumaon east to Malaysia, other species representing the genus further into the Oriental region.

The genus Potanthus

The genus Potanthus contains five species that occur in South India according to Evans (1949). They are very difficult to deal with. No data from before Evans’ book are correct and in most cases impossible subsequently to verify. Furthermore I should not be at all surprised if the classification of the taxa recognised by Evans in South India will even- tually be found to be in need of revision. Unfortunately none of the species is parti- cularly common, and I do not have a very large material on which to base personal study of the South Indian taxa. I shall list the taxa recognised as South Indian by Evans as valid for the Nilgiris even in the cases where I have not seen Nilgiri material. They are all certain to occur. Firm identifications need genitalia dissection, not least since there is also seasonal variation. The ‘majority of characters’ indica- tions below might serve to place individual specimens in the correct species, but it really is impossible to be certain except when a typi- cal specimen is compared with a correctly identified comparative series, and the genitalia examined if there is the least doubt. Females are even more difficult than the males.

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LGIRI MOUNTAINS

281. Potanthus pallida Evans ( Padraona sp.)

The pallid dart is rare in South India since Evans lists only six specimens from the Nilgiris. The bands are straw yellow like in P. pseudo- maesa but the wings are not so strongly pro- duced as in the other species. Given the amount of material available to Evans it is necessary to assume that it is genuinely absent from the Western Ghats proper, which would indicate that it is something of montane species. The range covers Sri Lanka and South India, then from Simla to Indo-China and Yunan.

282. Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa Moore

( Padraona sp.)

The pseudomaesa dart is similar to the preceding species with straw yellow markings, but the wings are shaped like the others of the genus. The species seems to be considerably more common. I have specimens from Glenburn, Nadgani and the Biligiriranga Mountains. In most cases small series were taken in sunny forest glades and along paths. The range covers Sri Lanka, South to central India, Mt. Abu and then from Kashmir to Hong Kong.

283. Potanthus confucius diana Evans ( Padraona sp.)

The confucian dart is the smallest of the South Indian species, the markings of the upperside are a much darker orange than in the two preceding species, and the brand broader than in the larger P. palnia. Judging from the limited series available in London it is not a common South Indian butterfly. My own single specimen is from the Nadgani Ghat; it is much smaller than any other of the genus in my collection. The distribution covers Sri Lanka, South India, Madhya Pra-

desh, Nepal to Japan, the Philippines and Sundaland.

284. Potanthus pava pava Fruhstofer ( Padraona sp.)

The pava dart has relatively broad bands of a golden orange that contrasts strongly with the pale straw of the Pallid and Pseudo- maesa Darts. The veins are less marked where they cross the bands than is normal in the genus. The forewing markings of 4 and 5 are well joined with the main discal band and is always in contact with the three apical spots. The species does not appear to be at all common in southern India. I have a single specimen from Mukkali as well as a fair series from the Biligiriranga Mountains where they were caught in moist-deciduous forest. The species is found in South India, then from Himachal east to most of the Oriental region.

285. Potanthus palnia Evans ( Padraona sp.)

The palni dart was described from the Palnis and appears to be the most common of the South Indian Potanthus. The bands are narrow and of a deep orange-hue. I have specimens from Glenburn, Kallar, Wenlock Bridge, and Mukkali as well as from the Bili- giriranga Mountains. The range covers southern India, then from Sikkim to Burma and Thai- land. It is said to recur on Sumatra though absent from Malaysia; the Sumatran form is almost certainly a good species.

286. Telicota colon colon Fabricius ( Astychas augias & pythias)

The two Telicota are like scaled up members of the previous genus, but are more powerful insects of more open country. The pale palm dart can usually, but not invariably, be told from the next by the fact that the forewing veins are yellow right out to the edge of the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

wing, but there is individual and seasonal variation in both of the species. Both are common in open country near forest and do not differ much in habits, though perhaps the present species will be found in slightly more open country than the next. The range covers practically the entire Oriental region deep into the Pacific and the Australian region.

287. Telicota ancilla bambusae Moore ( Astychas augias & pythias)

Apart from living in closer proximity to forest and perhaps being found under slightly more mesic minimum conditions, there is no difference between the dark palm dart and the previous species in range and behaviour, except that it is missing in some parts of the drier NW India where the other occurs. Both species are fond of flowers, come to bird drop- pings, but rarely or never to water.

288. Parnara naso bada Moore (not included in W-B)

The African straight swift is readily re- cognisable from the other small skippers of the group in South India by the lack of cell spots in both sexes and by the lack of a spot in space lb of the male. Wynter-Blyth expresses surprise that he did catch the very similar P. guttatus mangala Moore, but that species does not occur in South India at all. I have found the species not too uncommon mainly at lower levels and in the subtropical zone, but it will probably turn up in most habitats from time to time. It is one of the few skippers to be Palaetropical, being widely distributed in Africa and recurring from Sri Lanka and India to the Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi, Sumatra and Java, and then Queensland, appa- rently bypassing New Guinea.

289. Borbo cinnara Wallengren ( Baoris zelleri )

The rice swift is a relatively common

butterfly in the Nilgiris, being found in most types of terrain, but rarely on the plateau proper. I never found it as abundant as Wynter- Blyth seems to imply in his Nilgiri paper. It is most usually caught at low flowers, some- times on Lantana. The name zelleri Lederer has often been used in conjunction with this butterfly but this is quite mistaken since this name applies to a form of the Afrotropical B. borbonica which has no link to the Oriental region. The species ranges throughout the Oriental region in almost all ecological zones, extending to New Guinea, Australia and the New Hebrides.

290. Borbo bevani Moore ( Baoris bevani)

bevan’s swift has the wings, especially the hindwings, so broad that it cannot be mistaken for B. cinnara. The usual spotting is sometimes nearly obsolete. Only Hampson has recorded it from the Nilgiris where it seems to be scarce, and I have never found it common anywhere. From South India I have a few specimens from the Biligiriranga Mountains. The range is from most of India (but not Sri Lanka) to much of the rest of the Oriental region, but not Malaysia, Borneo and New Guinea, then again in NE Australia.

291. Pelopidas agna agna Moore (not included in W-B)

The dark branded swift is very similar to Pelopidas mathias, a common species generally found in more open country than the present one. It is a small species with less developed hyaline markings, and normally the spots on the underside hindwings are less prominent than in mathias. On close examination the brand will be found to be placed slightly diffe- rently. I have not found it particularly common but most visits to the tropical and subtropical evergreen forests will turn up a specimen or

36

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

two. It is fond of Lantana flowers. The range covers virtually all of the Oriental region.

292. Pelopidas subochracea subochracea

Moore

( Baoris sinensis)

The large branded swift is an altogether more impressive insect than the other South Indian members of the genus Pelopidas. The white forewing brand in the male is promi- nent and the deep ochre hindwing underside has prominent white spots in interspaces 2, 3 and 6, and prominently in the cell. It seems to be rare in the Nilgiris, Wynter-Blyth having taken one only at Kallar. I never saw it in the Nilgiris, but I have one from Sholayar in the Annamalais. The range covers Sri Lanka and South India, then from Sikkim east to Thai- land, Yunan and Hainan.

293. Pelopidas mathias mathias Fabricius ( Baoris mathias)

The small branded swift is a dry zone species that has been the subject of much con- fusion with P. agna. I never saw it till October 1986 after having spent six months in the area. Then a small skipper participated in the migra- tions and on a visit to Masinagudi I found large numbers of this species at flowers and at water. It would appear that a few migrants had been responsible for the production of a large brood which proceeded to move towards the south on hatching. I had prospected this locality on numerous occasions during the preceding months without seeing the species. The distribution is vast, covering all of Africa, much of Arabia and the whole of the Oriental region, with extensions to the temperate zone in Asia as well as to New Guinea.

294. Pelopidas conjuncta narooa Moore ( Baoris conjuncta)

The conjoined swift is a large species with

male stigma on the forewings. The markings are a pale yellow and not the milky white of the other species of the genus. The hindwing underside usually carries a complete comple- ment of white spots and those of at least spaces 2 and 3 are usually present on the upperside as well. Though Wynter-Blyth records it from Ketti, Kallar, Gudalur and Nadgani I have failed to find it. The distribution covers Sri Lanka and South India, from there to Sikkim, Assam, east to southern China, the Philippines, Borneo and Java.

295. Polytremis lubricans lubricans Herrich-

Schaffer

(Baoris conti gua)

The contiguous swift is so called be- cause the two cell spots are almost always merged. The hyaline spotting is yellowish and the ground colour has a distinctly chestnut tinge. All told the species has a different ‘feel’ from the related species. It seems to be very scarce in the Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth took one on the Nadgani Ghat and I have a single speci- men from the bottom of the Ghat which was not visited by him because of war-time petrol rationing. My specimen is from 20 . vii . 1 986. The species is found on the Western Ghats, then from Kumaon east to southern China and through Sundaland to Timor and the Sula Islands.

296. Baoris farri farri Moore

The paintbrush swifts constitute a com- plex of three species whose males have a dense brush of androconial scales on the upper hind- wings. This species is the South Indian repre- sentative and the male is unlike any other species in the area because of the brush. The female is rather like that sex of Caltoris cana- raica, but she never has light spots on the hind- wing underside like the latter. It is relatively rare and seems to be limited to the wettest

37

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

lowland evergreen forests. I know of records only from the Nadgani Ghat where I have especially found it in the early mornings sit- ting on green leaves along jungle paths, but on drizzly days it may be found feeding from Lantana as well. By 10.30 they disappeared completely. On one or two occasions I have caught males on fresh buffalo dung. The species is found in India and then east to Hong Kong, Malaysia and Sumatra. The closely related B. penicillata Moore is found on Sri Lanka, recurring from Sikkim east with- out being found in South India. Two other species of the genus are found from NE India to Sundaland.

297. Caltoris kumara kumara Moore (Baoris kumara)

The blank swift is a large, compact insect without hyaline spots in the forewing cell. Wynter-Blyth recorded it from a number of localities including Ketti (common), Kallar. Gudalur and Nadgani which is surprising to me since I have found just a few in the wettest Nadgani habitats. This might be because his records were mainly from October to January, a period of the year that I did not cover. The species is found in Sri Lanka and South India, then from Sikkim to Thailand, Indo-China and Java, but not Malaysia and Sumatra.

298. Caltoris canaraica Moore ( Baoris canaraica)

The kanara swift is a rather rare South Indian endemic. It is very like Caltoris kumara, though a bit smaller, but both sexes have two clear hyaline spots in the forewing cell. I have found it quite numerous on a single occasion on the Nadgani Ghat (mid July), in small numbers on a previous occasion, and once near Mukkali at the foot of the Silent Valley system. These seem to be the only Nilgiri records. It is probably limited to the wetter

lowland evergreen forest and in my experience it is best caught very early in the morning, as early as 07.00.

299. Caltoris philippina philippina Herrich- Schaffer

( Baoris philippina)

The Philippine swift definitely occurs in the Nilgiris, but I have not collected it and can say nothing about it except that it is probably mainly found in evergreen forests, including the subtropical level. It is widely distributed from Sri Lanka and South India, via Sikkim and Assam to the Oriental region. New Guinea and some of the Pacific islands.

South Indian Butterflies not yet

RECORDED FROM THE NlLGIRIS

Azanus uranus Butler — widely distributed in India and almost certain to occur in the dry zone lowland habitats somewhere in the Nilgiris area.

Arhopala hazaloides Hewitson — recorded from Kanara and almost certainly to be found somewhere in lowland evergreen forest.

Apharitis lilacinus Moore — possibly found in the dry zone habitat since known from Karnataka.

Parantirrhoea marshalli Wood-Mason — an endemic species in a monobasic genus and one of South India’s most interesting ende- mics, known from Coorg and Travancore. There are two in the British Museum (Natu- ral History) marked ‘Coonoor, Manders, 1 1 . 1910’ in the same handwriting. The species is a lowland one. They cannot be from Coonoor, but I would not be surprised to find it on the western slopes.

Mycalesis mamerta davidsoni Moore — record- ed from Trichy and possible in the Nilgiris area..

38

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

Mycalesis oculus Marshall — limited to the hills south of the Palghat Gap. Will not be found in the Nilgiris.

Ypthima ypthimoides Moore — as above. Pantoporia sandaka davidsoni Eliot — known from the Coorg area and probable in the Nilgiris.

Phalanta alcippe Cramer — known from Coorg, very locally. May just possibly occur in the Nilgiris.

Bibasis gomata kanara Evans — known from Kanara.

Hasora vitta indica Evans known from

Kanara. No Nilgiri records or specimens in BM(NH).

Caprona agama agama Moore — mentioned by Evans (1949) from the Palnis and Madurai. Aeromachus dubius dubius Elwes & Edwards — should occur in the Nilgiris as known from both north and south thereof. Plastingia sala Hewitson known from

Kanara, might occur in the Nilgiris. Hyarotis microstictum coorga Evans — known from Kanara and probable in the Nilgiris from where it has been recorded, but pos- sibly in error.

Tentative Conclusions

It is my intention to analyse the data pre- sented in this paper in a more detailed fashion in order to study the ecological and zoogeogra- phical composition of the Nilgiri butterfly fauna, the degree of endemism and other factors. This has not yet been done, but it seems appropriate to end the paper with some tentative conclusions that are unlikely to change in the face of a more detailed analy- tical treatment.

The first conclusion that can be drawn is that the Nilgiri fauna, with just 300 species, is rich, varied and very interesting. There is probably no other area of similar size in India

that has that many species, partly because those areas which have true rainforest will not simultaneously house the montane and tempe- rate element that is found in the high Nilgiris. Sri Lanka, further south, has only about 240 species.

The second conclusion that can be drawn is that the Nilgiri mountains contain practi- cally all the species ever recorded from any- where in southern India. Only a dozen or so potential species remain unrecorded. Possibly a few of these will turn out to be limited to the wettest parts of the Kanara Ghats, but most will eventually be found also in the Nilgiris.

A third conclusion is therefore that the faunal composition of the wetter South Indian mountains probably does not differ much from one to another. So far only two species are known to be limited to the mountains south of the Palghat Gap.

By far the richest habitat in terms of num- bers of species is the lowland rainforest, close- ly followed by the wet evergreen forests. The butterflies of these zones are mainly Oriental and it is notable that those limited to the rain- forests tend to have affinities to the Sundaland fauna rather than to the Indo-Chinese/Thai. Most of the specialities of these two zones have strongly disjunct distributions, being ab- sent from peninsular India.

The lowland mixed deciduous forest is also quite rich and is especially interesting for be- ing the headquarters of a number of species that are endemic to the Indian peninsula (and sometimes Sri Lanka). The drier for- mations contain mainly widespread Oriental and Palaeotropical species, but there is a de- cided admixture of Afrotropical and Eremic elements (details about these will be found in Larsen, 1984).

The subtropical evergreen forests contain a small number of species that seem to be cen-

39

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

tered on this zone. They will usually be the type of species that are also found in the sub- tropical zone of the Himalaya east to southern China, but not infrequently without Sundaland connections.

The plateau has a limited number of species of varied composition. The most noticeable are the disjunct Palaearctic elements, and the Oriental montane species. They are not many, but very prominent in the natural highland habitats. A number of widespread genera show secondary specialisation to the South Indian mountains and have developed local endemics. Finally there are many of the widespread and hardy Oriental and Palaeotropical species.

Zoogeographically South India is very much a part of the Oriental Region and virtually the entire fauna is Oriental of origin. Most of the endemic species belong to genera that have their centres of diversity elsewhere in the Oriental Region. The score or so Palaeotropi- cal species are represented virtually in full. The eremic, desert-adapted species are again few, mainly limited to the driest tracts and not much in evidence elsewhere. The few Afrotropical species are limited to the same habitats. The Palaearctic butterflies arc few in number, though rather prominent in the depau- perate butterfly fauna of the plateau proper.

The level of endemicity is both low and at low taxonomic levels, even when the whole of peninsular India, including Burma, is taken into account. Strict endemics at generic level are Parantirrhoea, which has not yet been found in the Nilgiris, and Sovia which is closely related to the Halpe. Wider endemics are Talicada, Rathinda and Zezius, and per- haps one or two others. The number of more or less endemic species is also modest in relation to the total fauna, not least when it is taken into account that so many of the species are strongly disjunct, being isolated in the South Indian wet zones. The bulk of the

endemics are isolated species in genera that have their centres of diversity elsewhere in the Oriental region.

There is much similarity between the fauna of South India and Sri Lanka, but there are also surprising differences. A considerable number of South Indian butterflies that one would have expected on Sri Lanka do not occur, while Sri Lanka has a number of ende- mics and a number of disjunct species not occurring in South India. At first sight the differences appear larger than one would have expected a priori. I hope to analyse this matter in a subsequent paper.

The initial impression that is gained is con- sistent with the conclusions of Holloway (1974), namely that if India had its own butterfly fauna when it merged with the rest of Asia after rafting from Gondwanaland, then all traces of this fauna has been lost. Otherwise, one would have to postulate both that India had been overwhelmingly responsible for popu- lating the remainder of the Oriental region, and thar in most cases the genera and species diverged far from the Gondwanan ancestors. Again I plan to look further into this issue, but at present it appears that South India has a fauna that is derived from a series of rela- tively recent contacts with neighbouring faunal regions, with some modest degree of subse- quent speciation in isolation.

Finally it is a pleasure to say that during seven months in the Nilgiris it was possible to collect the bulk of all the species that have ever been recorded from there. A comparison with earlier lists shows that there has been no significant depletion of genetic resources in butterflies, and I believe them to be a good indicator for general ecological conditions. However, habitats have been much shrunk. They are today just adequate and will, on the whole, not accept further large scale encroach- ment. That largest of all indicators of environ -

40

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LG1RI MOUNTAINS

mental health, the Indian Elephant, in some parts of the Nilgiris has lost its normal migra- tion routes to human interference. Future con- servation efforts must not only be concerned with establishing well-managed reserves in all habitat types. They must also conserve the necessary corridors to permit genetic flow between the various parts of the Western Ghats system as a whole. In practical terms this means that the whole area of Tamil Nadu and Kerala now forested should not be allowed to shrink any further. Nature conservation in the more narrow sense apart, there is increasing evidence that further deforestation of the Western Ghats system will lead to problems on a macro - ecological level in terms of water supply, ero-

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— (1985): ibid. 82: 309-321.

Watson, E. Y. (1890): A preliminary list of the butterflies of Mysore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 5 : 28-37.

Williams, C. B. (1927) : A study of butterfly migration in South India and Ceylon, based largely cn records by Mssrs. J. Evershed, E, E. Green, J. C. F. Fryer and W. Ormiston. Trans, ent. Soc. London., 75: 1-33.

Williams, C. B. (1938): The migration of butter- flies in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 40: 439- 457.

Woodhouse, L. G. O. (1952): The butterfly fauna of Ceylon. Government Printer, Colombo.

Wynther-Blyth, M. A. (1943): Note cn the Curetis species at Kallar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.. 43 : 671-672.

— (1944): The butterflies of the

Nilgiris. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 44: 536-549, and (1946): ibid. 45: 47-72.

(1946): Addenda and corri- genda to the butterflies of the Nilgiris. ibid. 45: 613-615.

(1947) : Additions to the butter- flies of the Nilgiris. ibid. 46 : 736.

(1957) : Butterflies of the

Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Yates, J. A. (1935): The butterflies of the Nilgiri District. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 38 : 330-340.

— (1946): The butterflies of the Nil-

giris — a supplementary note. ibid. 46: 197-198.

43

ON THE FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR (RAJASTHAN)1

C. R. Ajith Kumar and V. S. Vijayan2 (With a text -figure)

Introduction

One of the major attractions of Keoladeo National Park, a world heritage site, is its rookeries and heronries huddled on babul trees ( Acacia nilotica) in the semi-aquatic areas of the Park. Although the importance of fish to these colonies of fish eating birds was emphasized by Salim Ali (1953) about three decades ago, no concerted effort has been made hitherto to study the fish fauna of the Park in detail. Saxena (1975), Datta and Majumdar (1970), and Mahajan (1980) have reported the faunal elements but their study was seasonal and hence incomplete.

The present report covers a survey of the fish fauna of Keoladeo National Park, con- ducted between 1982 and 1985 as part of a long-term ecological study of the Keoladeo National Park by the Bombay Natural History Society. Altogether 40 species have been re- corded. Some species recorded by earlier workers were not seen during the present study while some new species have been added both to the fish fauna of Keoladeo National Park and to that of Rajasthan. All the species recorded so far by various workers have been included in the checklist.

Keoladeo National Park

Keoladeo National Park (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2' N and 77° 29.5' to 77°33.9'E) is a tiny wet-

1 Accepted February 1987.

2 Ecological Research Centre, Keoladeo Ghana National Park. Bharatpur 321 001. Rajasthan.

land surrounded by villages, about 3 km. from Bharatpur town. It is halfway (180 km.) bet- ween Jaipur and Delhi and is about 58 km. south of Agra.

The Park is 28.5 sq. km., out of which the aquatic area is only 8.5 sq. km. The entire aquatic area is divided into various compart- ments by means of bunds, and the water level in each compartment is regulated through sluice gates. The maximum water depth is up to two metres. During summer the Park dries up, leaving only a few isolated pools (for more details, see Salim Ali & Vijayan 1983).

Water temperature varied from 12° to 32°C during the study period, the maximum being in May and the minimum in January. Annual rainfall during 1982 to 1985 was 27 to 52 cm., received mainly during July to August.

The aquatic vegetation of the area consists mainly of: (1) Submerged vegetation, namely Hydrilla verticellata, Ceratophyllum sp., Najas minor ; (2) Floating vegetation, namely Nym- phaea nouchali, N. stellata, Nymphoides crista- turn, N. indicum, Ipomoea aquatica, Azolla hipinnata , Lemna paucicostata, Wolffia arrhiza, and (3) Emergent vegetation, such as Paspa- lum distichurn, Elaeocharis plantaginea, Sporo- holus helvolus and Cyperus alopecuroides.

Water source to the Park.

A consideration of the water source to the Park, its geographic position, and the age old management practice will give an insight into the fish fauna of the Park.

44

FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

The Park is situated at the confluence of two non-perennial rivers— Gambir and Ban- ganga; the former originates from the Karoli hills of Sawai Madhopur, flows about 280 km. before reaching Bharatpur and passes through Bharatpur to join Yamuna on the east. River Banganga originates near Manoharpur (near Jaipur) about 64 km. northwest of Jamwa Ramgarh, runs about 241 km. before termi- nating at Mckpur head, 18 km. short of Bharat- pur (Fig. 1).

Water from Gambir and Banganga is drawn through Pichuna canal and Uchain canal res- pectively and empties into a temporary re- servoir, Ajanbund, situated approximately 500 metres south of the Park. From here the water is let into the Park through Ghana canal. Enormous number of fish fry also enter the Park through these waters. Thus the aquatic ecosystem of the Park is an open system, having connections with the aforesaid two rivers which finally join the perennial Yamuna. The fish fauna of the Park also represents, partially at least, the fauna of all these waters. Even though the rivers are non-perennial, per- manent large water bodies such as Jamwa Ramgarh Tal, Bund Bareta. Jagur Tal and Kalako Bund are connected to either Banganga or Gambir, forming a common water system.

Methods of collection.

The following methods were used for sam- pling the fish fauna:

I. Gill nets: Gill nets of the size 11x1.20 m. with mesh sizes varying from 3.5 to 6.5 cm. were used to collect fish from open water where submerged vegetation may or may not be present.

II. Traps : Traps of two sizes, 35x30x40 cm. and 25 X 35 x 35 cm, made of split bamboo were employed to sample fishes from areas where thick vegetation occurred.

III. Cast net: Was used in open water and in pools.

IV. Fry sampling net: The bridge over Ghana canal near ‘Chital van’ has five pillars. The space between the adjacent pillars was blocked with a square net made of mosquito netting to sample the fish fry entering the Park from Ajanbund. Each net was of 150 x 150 cm.

Result

Fish fauna of the Park

All the 50 species recorded so far are listed below, following the classification adopted by Jayaram (1981).

I Order : clupeiformes Family (i) : Clupeidae Genus ( 1 ) : Gadusia Fowler

1 . Gadusia chapra (Hamilton)

II Order : osteoglossiformes Family (ii) : Notopteridae Genus (2) : Not opt er us Lacepede

2. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

***3. Notopterus chitala (Hamilton)

III Order : CYPRINIFORMES Family (iii) : Cyprinidae Genus (3): Oxygaster van Hasselt 4. Oxygaster bacaila (Hamilton)

Genus (4) : Danio Hamilton ****5. Danio sp.

Genus (5) : Chela Hamilton ****6. Chela sp.

Genus (6) : Esomus Swainson 7. Esomus danricus (Hamilton)

Genus (7): Labeo Cuvier **8. Labeo bata (Hamilton)

9. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton)

45

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

46

Fig. 1. Banganga and Gambher river system.

FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

**10. Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch)

1 1 . Labeo gonius (Hamilton)

12. Labeo rohita (Hamilton)

Genus (8) : A mblypharyngodon Bleeker

13. Amblypharyngodon mola (Hamilton) Genus (9) : Chagunius H. M. Smith

*14. Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton) Genus (10): Cirrhinas Oken

15. Cirrhinas mrigaia (Hamilton)

16. Cirrhinas reba (Hamilton)

Genus (11): Cat la Valenciennes

17. Catia catla (Hamilton)

Genus (12): Puntius Hamilton

18. Puntius sarana (Hamilton)

19. Puntius sophore (Hamilton)

20. Puntius ticto (Hamilton)

Genus (13): Osteobrama Heckel

21 . Osteobrama cotio (Hamilton)

Genus (14): Crossocheilus van Hasselt

****22. Crossocheilus latius latius (Hamilton)

Family (iv) : Cobitidae Genus (15): Botia Gray ****23. Botia lohachata Chaudhuri

Genus (16): Lepidocephalus Bleeker Subgenus : Lepidocephalichthys *24. L. (Lepidocephalichthys) guntea (Hamilton)

Genus (17): Noemacheilus van Hasselt

*25. Noemacheilus botia (Hamilton)

*26. Noemacheilus corica (Hamilton)

IV Order : siluriformes Family (v) : Bagridae Genus (18): Mystus Scopoli

27. Mystus cavasius (Hamilton)

28. Mystus vittatus (Bloch)

Genus (19): Aorichthys Wu

29 . Aorichthys aor

30. Aorichthys seenghala Family (vi) : Siluridae Genus (20) : Ompok Lacepede

****31. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)

Genus (21): Wallago Bleeker 32. Wallago attu (Schneider)

Family (vii) : Schilbeidae Genus (22) : Clupisoma Swainson ****33. Clupisoma garua (Hamilton)

Genus (23): Ailia Gray ****34. Ailia coila (Hamilton)

Genus (24) : Pseudeutropius Bleeker ****35. Pseudeutropius atherinoides (Bloch)?

Genus (25): Eutropiichthys Bleeker *36. Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton) Family (viii) : Clariidae Genus (26): Clarias Scopoli

37. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)

Family (ix) : Heteropneustidae Genus (27): Heteropneustes Muller

38. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Family (x) : Sisoridae Genus (28) : Nangra Day

****39. Nangra viridescens (Hamilton)

V Order : atheriniformes Family (xi): Belonidae Genus (29): Xenentodon Regan ****40. Xenentodon cancila Hamilton VI Order : channiformes

Family (xii) : Channidae Genus (30) : Channa Scopoli *41 . Channa gachua Hamilton

42. Channa marulius Hamilton

43. Channa punctatus (Bloch)

44. Channa striatus (Bloch)

VII Order : perciformes Family (xiii) : Chandidae Genus (31): Chanda Hamilton

47

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

****45 Chanda nama (Hamilton)

****46 Chanda ranga (Hamilton)

Family (xiv) : Relontidae Genus (32) : Colisa Cuvier

****47 Colisa fasciata (Schneider)

VIII Order : mastacemreliformes Family (xv) : Mastacembelidae Genus (33): Mastacembelus Scopoli

48. Mastacembelus armatus armatus (Lacepede)

49. Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton) Genus (34) : Macrognathus Lacepede

50. Macrognathus acuieatus (Bloch)

* Recorded only by Mahajan (1980).

** Recorded only by Saxena (1975).

*** Recorded by both Mahajan and Saxena but not during the present study.

**** Recorded only in the present study.

Discussion

This study adds 13 new records to the fish fauna of Keoladeo National Park, making the total, including those recorded by earlier workers, to 50. It is also interesting to note that this tiny wetland has, altogether, added 13 species to the fish fauna of Rajasthan, in- creasing it to 88; the former record being 75 species (Datta and Majumdar 1970). Out of the 13 species, six, namely Crossoeheilus latius latius, Ailia colla, Nangra viridescens, Clupi- soma garua, Pseudeutropius atherinoides (?) and Chela sp. are recorded by us, while four, namely Noemacheilus corica, Aorichthys aor, Eutropiichthys vacha and Macrognathus acu- ieatus are by Mahajan (1980), two species, namely Tor tor and Notopterus chitala are by Moona (1963) and one species, Clarias batra- chus is by Saxena (1975). None of the six species recorded by us breed inside the Park

and were collected when the water entered the Park. Three of them ( Crossoeheilus latius, Clupisoma garua and Nangra viridescens ) were less frequent.

Although the fish fauna of the Park lists 50 species, the present study could record only 40. Seven species namely Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Noemacheilus botia, N. corica, Aorich- thys aor, Eutropiichthys vacha, Channa gachua and Chagunius chagunio recorded by Mahajan (1980), two, namely Labeo bata and L. fim- briatus reported by Saxena (1975), and one species, Notopterus chitala recorded by both of them were not seen during the present study. As the present investigation was a continuous and intensive one for the last four years, we presume that these 10 species must have be- come locally extinct or were stray records. Dis- appearance of these species may be due to: (1) alteration or destruction of habitats in the breeding area outside the Park, (2) changes in the habitat inside the Park, (3) over-exploita- tion, and (4) displacement or competitive exclusion by the ‘invaders’. As quantitative data on their abundance and habitat when they were present inside the Park are not available, it is not possible to attribute with certainty any of the above mentioned factors as respon- sible for their elimination. However, with the available information the following inference is made:

Of the 40 species recorded during the study, only six breed inside and the rest enter through the canal while the water is let in. Among the 10 locally extinct species, it is not clear how many of them were breeding inside. It is likely, two of them, Channa gachua and Notop- terus chitala might have been breeding inside as their congeners Channa punctatus, C. stria - tus, C. marulius and Notopterus notopterus are the major breeding species of the Park. As coexistence of congeneric sympatric species is often due to different ecological require-

48

FISH FAUNA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK

ments (Cody 1974, Pontin 1982), a minor alteration of the habitat might affect the chances of their survival. Pertinent at this point is the uncontrolled growth of Paspalum dis- tichum, a perennial, amphibious grass, and the subsequent changes in the aquatic system owing to the prevention of buffalo grazing since 1982. Habitat stress leads to competition especially in the congeneric sympatric species which may ultimately exclude the weaker ones (Stephens 1970, Zaret 1971). This may be true for two out of the ten locally extinct species which have their congeners in the Park. Except Channa gachua, Chagunius chagunio, Lepi- docephallchthys guntea, Noemacheilus botia and N. corica all the other species which were not seen now are economically important. Hence over-exploitation might also have played a major role. Tor mahseer. Tor tor, one of the important sport fishes reported by Moona (1963)

in Ajanbund, was not seen during the present study and it is noticed that there has been a drastic decline in their number in the rivers of North India (Kulkarni 1980, Jhingran 1982)

The local extinction may be the result of all the factors mentioned above, operating toge- ther or individually. Our ongoing study on the ecology of major species in the Park may throw more light into this.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the help render- ed by Mr. T. K. Sen, Officer-in-charge, Fresh- water Fish Section, Zoological Survey of India for confirmation of identification of the species. We also thank Dr. C. V. Kulkarni for critically going through the manuscript and also Mr. J. G. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society for the constant encouragement.

References

Ali, Salim (1953): The Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur (Rajasthan). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (3) : 531-536.

Ali Salim & Vijayan, V. S. (1983) : Hydrobio- logy (Ecological) Research at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. First Interim Report, Bombay Natural History Society.

Cody, M. (1974) : Competition and the structure of bird communities. Princeton, New Jersy. 318 pp.

Datta, A. K. & Majumdar, N. (1970): Fauna of Rajasthan, India. Part 1, Fishes, Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 62: 63-100.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981) : The Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Burma and Sri Lanka. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 475 pp.

Jhingran, (1982) : Fish and fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing Corporation, Delhi, pp. 666.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1980) : Eggs and early develop- ment of Tor mahseer Fish. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(1): 70-75.

Mahajan, C. L. (1980) : Effect of human acti- vities on the structure and functioning of freshwater

ecosystems of Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur. Rajasthan. A Preliminary Report in the Man and Biosphere Project. Dept, of Science and Technology, Govt, of India, 1976-1979.

Math ur, B. B. L. (1952) : Notes on Fishes from Rajasthan, India. Rec. Ind. Mus. Delhi. 5(7(1) : 105-110.

Moona, J. C. (1963) : Notes on fishes from Bharat- pur District, Rajasthan. Rec. Ind. Mus. Delhi. 58(2): 59-66.

Pontin, A. J. (1982) : Competition and coexist- ence of species. Pitman Advanced Publishing Pro- gramme. London. 102 pp.

Saxena, V. S. (1975) : A study of flora and fauna of Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary. Dept, of Tourism. Rajasthan.

Stephens, John S. jr, (1970) : The comparative ecology of three sympatric species of Californian blennids, Ecol. Mono gr. 40(2) : 213-233.

Zaret, Thomas M. (1971) : Competition in tropi- cal stream fishes. Support for the competition exclu- sion principle. Ecol. 52(2): 336-342.

49

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)1 V. J. Zach arias2 & D. N. Mathew3 (With three text -figures)

Introduction

The babblers of the genus Turdoides have a wide distribution in India. The Whiteheaded Babbler (Turdoides affinis) and the Jungle Babbler (T. striatus ) occur sympatrically in many parts of South India. Both live in flocks and their ecological requirements overlap in many areas. There are a few informative publications on the ecology of babblers of the genus Turdoides (Zahavi 1974, Gaston 1976, 1977). From June, 1974 to September, 1977 one of us (VJZ) had an opportunity to carry out a comparative study of the ecology of T. affinis and T. striatus in Calicut. S. India. DNM worked on the food and moult of the Jungle Babbler from 1975 to 1977 in the same locality.

Study area\

This study was centred at the Calicut Uni- versity campus 10° 30'-45' N, 75° 40'-50' E and in area of 2.27 km2. A considerable part of the area consists of open secondary scrub jungle and stretches of laterite sparsely covered with grass, intermixed with a few groves of coconut and cashew. The terrain is undulating and the elevation c. 80 m. The area of collec- tion, Chelannur, Calicut, was more urbanized but with the same climate and type of layout of crops. The elevation at Chelannur varies from sea level to about 100 m.

1 Accepted July 1986.

2 Present address : Department of Zoology, St. Joseph’s College, Devagiri, Calicut-673 008. Kerala. India.

3 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut. Kerala, India.

Climate :

The study area is hot and humid. The warm season from March to May is followed by the southwest monsoon from June to Sept- ember. It may continue to rain in October and November but rains cease after December. During south-west monsoon rainfall is heavy and amounts to more than half of the total rainfall (Table 1).

Vegetation'.

The flora is tropical but tree species are few. Plant formations varied from low scrub dominated by Calycopteris floribunda to closed canopy woodland comprising Macaranga pel- tata and Anacardium Occident ale. Lantana camara forms thickets in areas where the soil is more moist. The centre of the University campus is more or less open with stretches of grass. In the low lying peripheral areas there is less of laterite and the top soil is deeper. Isolated patches of canopy woodlands are common here.

The southern part of the campus is more densely populated and has a few gardens of crops like banana and cassava. Some of them serve as food for the babblers, and all har- boured caterpillars and other small animals preyed upon by the birds. Chelannur area is intensively cultivated with crops like paddy, cassava, coconut, mango, cashew, cowpea. snakegourd, bittergourd, yam etc. The secon- dary scrub jungles are fewer except for the many sacred groves.

50

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

Table 1

Monthly totals	OF RAINFALL	RECORDS AT THE	Calicut station of the	METEOROLOGICAL	DEPARTMENT
Months	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977
January	000.0	000.0	000.0	000.0	000.0
February	000.0	000.0	005.3	Terace	000.5
March	000.0	08.6	073.4	015.6	002.4
April	62.6	81.6	106.6	134.0	103.4
May	82.8	255.3	149.7	050.1	249.4
June	744.6	305.1	1299.3	209.9	723.0
July	585.1	1700.0	578.8	760.0	998.9
August	501 . 3	496.8	773.2	254.5	251.1
September	25.2	639.6	648.4	086.2	83.7
October	132.0	61.2	295.2	297.7	439.0
November	73.2	15.8	157.0	335.4	380.6
December	14.8	000.0	012.8	007.5	000,0

on the trunks of trees. The habitat of these babblers in the University campus can be divid- ed into four types.

1) Highly modified areas around human habitation which are systematically water- ed and cultivated.

2) Open grass-covered hillocks and scrub jungle with a few trees.

3) Closed canopy woodlands 10-12 m. most- ly Macaranga peltata and Bambusa arun- dinacea with a fairly good undergrowth.

4) Woodland with sparse or no undergrowth, constantly disturbed by removal of vege- tation for manuring.

Turdoides affinis occurs in the first, second and fourth types and T. striatus in the first, third and fourth types of habitat. The former is usually absent in canopy woodlands and the latter in the open grass-covered hillocks (Fig. 1). Chelannur had very few subhabitats of type 3. Both species of babblers were seen in types 1, 3 and 4 but the Jungle Babbler moved about in shady areas with thickets of lantana or trees like Macaranga to seek shelter in.

Though there are differences in colour, size

51

Methods

The babblers were observed using 8 x 30 binoculars. Individual groups were followed for periods from 2-8 hours. For studies of food and moult, specimens of T. affinis and T. stria- tus were collected between 1975 and 1977, mostly from Chelannur. Stomachs were pre- served in 4% formalin and the contents iden- tified. Insect abundance in the study area was sampled by sweep netting twice a month throughout the year and the number of in- vertebrates counted.

Results

Turdoides affinis (c. 63 g) moves in groups of 3-14 birds in the study area. It forages from dawn to dusk in open fields, grassy hillocks and gardens, progressing slowly by hopping and gliding. It is a poor flier but hops about vigorously on the ground in search of food. T. striatus (c. 74 g) also occurs sympatrically but in the more sheltered areas full of thickets of lantana. Foraging flocks of both species turn over dead leaves, explore the clumps of grasses, holes on the ground and the crevices

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Roost

Type I Type II Type HI ^ Typeiv::;:

T affinis

site of {^7 striatus • Buildings n NH 17 National highway

scale 1:8000

Fig. 1. Distribution of the two species of Babblers in the four types of habitats

the Calicut University Campus.

NH17

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

and calls, some of the behavioural patterns of these babblers are very similar. Interesting differences were noticed in their ecological requirements. The sentinel system occurs in both species. The jungle babbler sentinel perch- ed higher than its congener. The Jungle Babblers perched on much higher branches for roosting (Table 2). Many species of trees are

Table 2

Height qe roosting perches in babblers

Height (m)	T.	afjinis	T.	striatus
Fre-	Percen-	Fre-	Percen-
	quency	tage	quency	tage
2-4	16	- 55.1 f	. ■ 5	29.4
4-6	9	31	8	47.5
6 and above	4	13.8	4	23.5
Total	29		17
shared by	groups	of both for	roosting. The

home range of a group of T. afjinis varied from 5.7 to 9.3 hectares and that of T. striatus from 6.3 to 8.9 hectares. Each group had a strongly defended core area inside the home range in which the group roosted and nested. The border areas of two or more groups and of the two species often overlapped. Through- out the period of study the area of the territory maintained by each group remained more or less the same; though some changes occurred in three groups due to the destruction of vege- tation and development of a new park in the University campus.

Food and Feeding habits

The Whiteheaded Babblers are omnivorous. Their food includes many insects. They spend considerable time searching for food in the open grasslands, scrub jungles, paddy fields, in the compounds of houses, orchards, and gar-

dens, They consume a good quantity of plant food like seeds of Lantana, Zizyphus, and Macaranga, tubers of cassava and kitchen scraps. Their animal food included insects such as beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, termites, bugs, spiders and lizards. Large caterpillars were pinned by the feet and torn to bits before eating, and smaller ones were wedged between the tips of the bill and pulled into the mouth gradually.

The Whiteheaded Babblers probe the holes on the trunks of trees and among the leaf bases of banana and coconut palms in search of food. The leaves of twiners attached to trees like cashew are explored for caterpillars. Time and again they flick dead leaves in search of prey. They dig around the roots of grasses and probe holes on the ground. They forage on trees up to a height of 1 0 m. flitting from branch to branch. The caterpillars clinging to leaves are sometimes taken by tearing a bit of the leaf along with the prey. The White- headed Babblers usually do not go to the top of taller trees for foraging. The foraging methods of the two species of babblers can be classified into the following categories : (Andrle & Andrle 1976).

1) Stationary plucking : The birds hover

over bunches of fruits and pluck them.

2) Inverted feeding : The birds hang up- side down from the leaves to catch cater- pillars.

3) Peering : The birds twist their heads to one side and peer under leaves from perches in search of caterpillars.

4) Springing up vertically : This method is used on trees as well as on the ground. On the trees the birds spring vertically to pluck the overhanging fruits like those of Macaranga. On the ground they spring up to catch winged termites and other insects.

53

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 85

5) Aerial feeding : Very rarely T. affinis jumps into the air from its perch to catch flying insects.

6) Probing : The birds insert their bills into curled-up leaves, gaps in the bark and holes on the trunks of trees.

7) Hopping and gliding’. This is the most common method used close to the ground to catch grasshoppers and crickets.

8) Lifting of dead leaves : Birds lift dead leaves on the ground with their bills. The dead leaves are flicked to one side or the other.

Aerial feeding is not used by T. striatus. It does not spring up vertically. The methods of foraging are compared in Table 3.

Table 3

Foraging methods of babblers

Methods	7. affinis	T. striatus
Stationary plucking	22	14
Inverted feeding	30	3
Peering	18	6
Springing vertically	24	2
Aerial feeding	8	—
Probing into curled-up leaves on trees	18	4
Hopping and gliding	40	31
Digging and probing into holes
on ground	32	22
Flicking of dead leaves on	ground 42	44
Total observations	234	126

Sampling of insect abundance in the field showed that all invertebrates were numerous during and after the rains (Fig. 2). The steep increase in June is related to the number of caterpillars which feed on the leaves. Crops such as cassava, paddy and peas are cultivated at the onset of rains and harvested towards the end of the year. Observations in the field and study of the stomach contents showed a

Arthropods except bees & ants

Rainfall (in mm)

Fig. 2. Monthly abundance of some arthropods and rainfall in the study area.

direct relationship between the feeding beha- viour observed in the field and the quality of food taken. Monthwise studies of the stomach contents of T. affinis and T. striatus are shown in Tables 4 & 5. Grasshoppers were the most frequent items of food from September to Nov- ember along with caterpillars. Termites were consumed in large quantities from March to June. Fruits of Macaranga were eaten from March to May. Since a large portion of the study area is irrigated, grasshoppers are availa- ble in varying quantities throughout the year.

Generally the insects which were available in good numbers in the area of collection

54

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

Table 4

Analysis of	STOMACH CONTENTS	OF T. a	j {finis in	VARIOUS MONTHS.	1975-1977
Item	JAN	FEB	Frequency MAR APR	of each MAY	item in JUN	a month's sample JUL AUG SEP	OCT	NOV	DEC
Orthoptera	5	3	2	2	6	5	8	13	12	9	9	8
Dermaptera	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	l	-	-	-	-
Isoptera	11	11	14	13	13	14	9	12	12	15	10	7
Heteroptera	1	-	1	-	2	8	5	7	2	2	3	5
Coleoptera	9	6	9	7	10	10	14	17	18	16	15	11
Hymenoptera	14	9	9	7	9	10	7	11	11	11	13	11
Lepidoptera	2	1	2	-	-	1	2	1	1	4	7	3
Diptera	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	-
Myriapoda	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	1	-	1
Arachnida	1	2	-	-	-	1	2	1	4	4	2	5
Mollusca	-	2	-	1	1	-	-	1	-	-	-	-
Vertebrates (bones) Seeds & fruits	- ■	-	—	-	-	-	-	-	1	1	-	1
Zizyphus jiijuba	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Leguminosae	-	-	- ■	-	-	-	-	1	1	-	-	-
Passiflora foetida	-	-	-		-	1	-	3	4	4	2	-
Ixora coccinea	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	2
Phy satis minima	2		-	-	-	-	1	3	-	1	-	-
Lantana camara	-	1	1	-	1	1	1	1	3	4	3	6
Macaranga indica	-	-	9	12	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Cassava, starch	3	7	6	5	6	6	4	5	8	7	4	3
Oryza sp. (grains)	6	7	3	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	_
Graminae Other seeds &	—	1	-	—	—	1	1	2	—		—	—
Plant fibres	1	2	1	-	5	3	-	1	1	1	-	1
Total number of
specimens examined	14	12	15	13	13	15	15	18	19	17	16	16

during a particular month were the most nume- rous item of food in the stomach contents for that month. Whiteheaded Babblers tore their prey to small pieces before swallowing it and it was therefore difficult to separate many of the items of food found in their stomach. The Jungle Babbler is slightly larger than its con- gener and with a larger bill (Table 6) and took slightly larger prey also. Observations in the field and study of the stomach contents both support this view. Although only a few in- sects were identified up to family level in our sample, the variety of insects consumed appear-

ed to be greater in T. striatus (Table 8). The samples also suggested that more individuals of T. affinis had consumed termites, bugs and hymenopterans (Table 7) whereas more T. striatus had consumed coleopterans. The mem- bers of more families of beetles in the stomach contents of T. affinis from Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh and Palghat District, Kerala. The fruits of Lantana, Passiflora and Maca- ranga are eaten by both T. affinis and T. striatus.

Though there is a clear overlap in the items of food of the two species of babblers, they

55

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Table 5

Analysis of stomach contents of T. striatus in various months, 1975-1977

Item	JAN	FEB	Frequency of each MAR APR MAY	i item in JUN	a month’s sample JUL AUG SEP	OCT NOV DEC
Orthoptera	3	7	2	6	1	10	12	6	18	13	10	8
Isoptera	14	17	16	19	11	17	13	11	7	9	10	8
Heteroptera	4	-	-	4	1	4	2	2	3	1	-	2
Coleoptera	16	14	13	18	11	20	16	19	21	17	16	15
Lepidoptera	-	-	]	1	-	A	-	-	5	3	1	2
Diptera	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	1	-	1	-
Hymenoptera	11	7	8	7	8	13	10	14	13	16	11	8
Myriapoda	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	1
Arachnida	-	-	-	-	1	-	5	1	-	1	3	3
Mollusca	1	1	-	-	-	-	-	-		_	_	_
Vertebrates (Bones)	-	-	-	-	-	-	_	_	1	_	_	_
Seeds & fruits
Zizyphus jujuba	3	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Laguminosae	2	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	i	1	-
Pcssiflora foetida	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Ixora coccinea	-	1	2	1	1	-	-	-	-	-	- .	-
Physalis minima	-	-	-	-	-		1	2	1	i	-	-
Lantana carnara	-	-	-	3	1	1	2	6	5	2	2	-
M acaranga indica	-		1 1	15	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Cassava starch	10	12	3	2	4	9	11	1 1	10	9	11	5
Oryza sp.	8	9	5	-	2	-	-	-	2	-	2	2
Plant parts	-	1	-	2	-	i '	1	Y	1	4	l	-
Total number of
species examined	16	17	16	22	13	21	17	19	24	17	17	15
					Table	6
	^Weights and measurements of	the two species of	BABBLERS
						T. affinis				T. striatus
Weight (in g)					63.	3 (52-70)			74.3	(60-87)
Length (in cm)					22	9 (21-	■23.5)			24.5 (23.8-25.2)
Wing (in mm)					104	(96-	-108)			106	(104-108)
Tail (in mm)					98	(95-	-105)			103	(98-108)
Tarsus (in mm)					35	(32-	-37)			38	(36-39)
Bill (in mm)					24	(19-24)			28	(22-28)
Total number of specimens			30					15
* Mean

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ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.)

Table 7

	Insects	identified in stomach	contents of T. off in is
Item	Frequency	Percentage*	Remarks
Orthoptera	82	44.8	Acrididae 6, Tettigonidae 5, Mantis 1, Blat- tidae 1, Cockroaches 10.
Dermaptera	1	0.47	Forficulid.
Isoptera	148	80.8	Termites.
Heteroptera	36	19.7	Fulgoridae 1.
Coleoptera	142	77.6	Carabidae 1. Buprestidae 1, Coccinellidae 3, Tenebrionidae 1, Scarabidae 2, Chrysomelidae 4, Curculionidae 11.
Hymenoptera	122	66.6	Ichneumonidae 6, Chalcididae 5, Chrysididae (cuckoo wasp) 3. Specoidae 1, Formicidae; Oecophylla sp. 37, Camponotus 80, Solenop- sis 2.
Lepidoptera	24	13.1	Geometridae 1. Sphingidae 2.
Diptera	2	1.1
Total number of specimen examined	183

* Percentage of the number of specimens which had consumed the item of food.

Table 8

Insects identified in the stomach contents of T. striatus

Item	Frequency	Percentage*	Remarks
Orthoptera	96	44.9	Acrididae 3, Tettigonidae 3, Gryllidae 2, Mantidae: Mantis sp. 4, Phasmidae: Stick insect 2. Blattidae: Cockroaches 18.
Isoptera	152	71	Termites
Heteroptera	23	10.8	Reduviidae 2, Pentatomidae 3, Fulgoridae 1.
Coleoptera	196	91.6	Carabidae 3, Histeridae 1, Buprestidae 3, Cucujidae 2, Coccinellidae 3, Molandridae 1, Tenobrionidae 1, Bostrichidae 1, Scarabidae 14, Melolonthidae 1, Chrysomelidae 4, Curculionidae 1 9.
Hymenoptera	126	58.8	Ichneumonidae 2, Chalcididae 3, Chrysididae (Cuckoo wasp) 13, Formicidae 18, Oecophylla sp. 33. Camponotus sp. 84.
Lepidoptera	17	7.9	Geometridae 2.
Diptera	3	1.4	—
Total number of specimens examined	214	' ’

* Percentage of the number of specimens which had consumed the item of food.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

appear to adjust with each other and to co- exist due to the differences in their feeding behaviour and microhabitat.

T. striatus

Breeding biology

In the study area both T. affinis and T. striatus breed throughout the year. Ali (1969) reported T. affinis to be irregular in breeding. In our study area active nests of T. affinis were found during all the months of the year with two peak periods, April and September (Fig. 3). In T. striatus which is also an irre- gular breeder (Ali 1969), there are records of egg laying in all months except June and Nov- ember. In both species no egg laying was observed in July, the month of heaviest rain- fall. Eighty two nests of T. affinis and 23 of T. striatus were studied.

Nest construction:

The breeding pair is assisted by helpers in T. affinis and T. striatus for building the nest. First year birds, second year and nonbreeding adults acted as helpers in building the nest.

Nests were built on isolated plants and trees in the scrub jungles, and gardens. Trees like Anacardium occidentale, Mangi- fera indica, Strychnos nux-vomica, Arto- carpus integrifolia and Cocos nucifera and bushes such as Calycopteris floribunda, Meme- cylon edute and Eupatorium odoratum were used by T. affinis for nesting. Garden plants such as Casuarina and Tecoma were frequently used. In two cases the roofing of a shed con- structed of dry folded coconut fronds served as a base for nests. All the plants mentioned above were used by T. striatus also for nest- ing. The nests of the latter were also recorded from Strychnos nux-vomica, and Macaranga indica. Thirty six per cent of the nests of T. affinis were found on Calycopteris, 17% on Anacardium occidentale , and six per cent on

7. affinis

Fig. 3. Rainfall and number of new clutches started.

Strychnos nux-vomica (Table 9). Twenty eight per cent of the nest of T. striatus were found on Calycopteris floribunda, 16% each on Anacardium occidentale, Mangifera indica and Macaranga peltata.

58

ECOLOGY OF BABBLERS (TURDOIDES SPP.) Table 9

Plants used for nesting by babblers

Species	T. affinis	T. striatus
Frequency	Percentage	Frequency	Percentage
Anacardium occidentale	14	17.2	4	16
Man gif era indica	10	12.3	4	16
Strychnos nux-vomica	5	6.2	-	-
Macaranga indica	-	-	4	16
Artocarpus integrifolia	1	1.2	-	-
Santalum album	1	1.2	1	4
Term inal ia pan iculata	1	1.2	-	-
Cocos nucifera	4	4.9	1	4
Calycopteris floribunda	29	35.8	7	28
Syzygium caryophyllatum	1	1.2	1	4
Eupatorium odoratum	4	4.9	-	-
Memocylon edule	3	3.7	3	12
Casuarina equisetifolia	3	3.7	-	-
Agava sp.	1	1.2	-	-
Eugenia sp.	1	1.2	-	-
Tecoma stans	1	1.2	-	-
Coconut frond roofing of shed	2	2.5	-	-
Total	81		25

Nests of T. affinis were built at heights of 0.2-6 m from the ground (Table 10). Nests built in the smaller bushes were invariably placed in the centre where they were best concealed. Seventy two per cent of the nests were built below 2 m height from the ground. In T. striatus height of the nest varied from 0.5 to 8 m. above the ground.

Herbs such as Oldenlandia heynii, Borreria stricta, Desmodium triflorum , Canscora pauci- flora, Evolvulus alcinoides, and Centrosoma verginiana and coconut husks were used by both species for nest construction. In the ten nests of T. affinis examined carefully there was a uniform proportion of coconut husks, Evol- vulus alcinoides and grasses for the inner lining. Sixty per cent of the nests of T. striatus had coconut husks for inner lining.

The duration of nest building in T. affinis varied from 3.5 to 6 days and that of T. striatus

Table 10

Nesting heights of babblers

Height (m)	T.	affinis	T. striatus
Fre- quency	Percen- tage	Fre- quency	Percen- tage
1-2 m	14	39.0	5	25
1-2 m	14	28.3	5	25
2-2 m	6	16.6	3	15
3 -4 m	2	5.5	3	15
4 & above	2	5.5	5	25
Total	36		20
from 4-6	days.	In both cases the	num-

ber of helpers had no relation to the duration of nest building. The completed nest in both species was a loosely put together cup of twigs, roots and grass.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 85

Egg laying :

T. affinis and T. striatus laid eggs on the day following the completion of the nest. But in T. affinis, the first egg was laid only three days after the completion of the nest in three cases, after 16 days in one case and after 18 days in a third. American Goldfinches and some Redstarts of the genus Mycoborus may wait a week or more before egg laying begins (Vantyne & Berger 1976).

Eggs of both species were turquoise blue in colour. Twelve eggs from five clutches of T. affinis had an average size of 24.0 x 18.6 mm. Ten eggs from three clutches of T. striatus